Radio-Frequency Communications Principles

Written by, and with the advice of, senior technicians in these ratings, this series provides beginners with fundamental electrical and electronic concepts through self-study. The presentation of this series is not oriented to any specific rating structure, but is divided into modules containing related information organized into traditional paths of instruction. The series is designed to give small amounts of information that can be easily digested before advancing further into the more complex material. For a student just becoming acquainted with electricity or electronics, it is highly recommended that the modules be studied in their suggested sequence. While there is a listing of NEETS by module title, the following brief descriptions give a quick overview of how the individual modules flow together. Module 1, Introduction to Matter, Energy, and Direct Current, introduces the course with a short history of electricity and electronics and proceeds into the characteristics of matter, energy, and direct current (dc). It also describes some of the general safety precautions and first-aid procedures that should be common knowledge for a person working in the field of electricity. Related safety hints are located throughout the rest of the series, as well. Module 2, Introduction to Alternating Current and Transformers, is an introduction to alternating current (ac) and transformers, including basic ac theory and fundamentals of electromagnetism, inductance, capacitance, impedance, and transformers. Module 3, Introduction to Circuit Protection, Control, and Measurement, encompasses circuit breakers, fuses, and current limiters used in circuit protection, as well as the theory and use of meters as electrical measuring devices. Module 4, Introduction to Electrical Conductors, Wiring Techniques, and Schematic Reading, presents conductor usage, insulation used as wire covering, splicing, termination of wiring, soldering, and reading electrical wiring diagrams. Module 5, Introduction to Generators and Motors, is an introduction to generators and motors, and covers the uses of ac and dc generators and motors in the conversion of electrical and mechanical energies.


Module 6, Introduction to Electronic Emission, Tubes, and Power Supplies, ties the first five modules together in an introduction to vacuum tubes and vacuum-tube power supplies. Module 7, Introduction to Solid-State Devices and Power Supplies, is similar to module 6, but it is in reference to solid-state devices. Module 8, Introduction to Amplifiers, covers amplifiers. Module 9, Introduction to Wave-Generation and Wave-Shaping Circuits, discusses wave generation and wave-shaping circuits. Module 10, Introduction to Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines, and Antennas, presents the characteristics of wave propagation, transmission lines, and antennas. v Module 11 , Microwave Principles, explains microwave oscillators, amplifiers, and waveguides. Module 12, Modulation Principles, discusses the principles of modulation. Module 13, Introduction to Number Systems and Logic Circuits, presents the fundamental concepts of number systems, Boolean algebra, and logic circuits, all of which pertain to digital computers. Module 14, Introduction to Microelectronics, covers microelectronics technology and miniature and microminiature circuit repair. Module 15, Principles of Synchros, Servos, and Gyros, provides the basic principles, operations, functions, and applications of synchro, servo, and gyro mechanisms. Module 16, Introduction to Test Equipment, is an introduction to some of the more commonly used test equipments and their applications. Module 17, Radio-Frequency Communications Principles, presents the fundamentals of a radio- frequency communications system. Module 18, Radar Principles, covers the fundamentals of a radar system. Module 19, The Technician's Handbook, is a handy reference of commonly used general information, such as electrical and electronic formulas, color coding, and naval supply system data. Module 20, Master Glossary, is the glossary of terms for the series. Module 21, Test Methods and Practices, describes basic test methods and practices. Module 22, Introduction to Digital Computers, is an introduction to digital computers. Module 23, Magnetic Recording, is an introduction to the use and maintenance of magnetic recorders and the concepts of recording on magnetic tape and disks. Module 24, Introduction to Fiber Optics, is an introduction to fiber optics.


TELECOMMUNICATIONS refers to communications over a distance and includes any transmission, emission, or reception of signs, signals, writings, images, or sounds. Intelligence produced by visual means, oral means, wire, radio, or other electromagnetic systems are also included. Electrical, visual, and sound telecommunications are all used in the Navy. In this chapter we will talk only about electrical types of telecommunications. ELECTRICAL The types of electrical communications are radio and wire. Radio uses electromagnetic waves to transmit and receive intelligence. The waves are not guided by a physical path between sender and receiver. Wire uses conductors to carry these waves. Radio is the most important method the Navy has of communicating between widely separated forces. The transmission methods we will be discussing are radiotelegraph, radiotelephone, teletypewriter, and facsimile. Radiotelegraph Radiotelegraph transmissions are referred to as continuous wave (cw) telegraphy. Cw is a manual or automatic system of transmitting signals using a wave of radio-frequency (rf) energy. The radio operator separates a continuously transmitted wave into dots and dashes based on the Morse code. This is accomplished by opening and closing a telegraphic hand key. Radiotelegraphy was the first means of radio communications that had military and commercial importance. Radiotelegraph still is used as a means of communication to, from, and among widely separated units of the Navy. Relative slow speed of transmission and the requirement for experienced operators are the major disadvantages of radiotelegraph. The main advantage is reliability. A thinking person at both sending and receiving stations provides a capability of being understood not present in automated systems. Radiotelephone Radiotelephone is one of the most useful military communications methods. Because of its directness, convenience, and ease of operation, radiotelephone is used by ships, aircraft, and shore stations. It has many applications and is used for ship-to-shore, shore-to-ship, ship-to-ship, air-to-ship, ship-to-air, air-to-ground, and ground-to-air communications.


The landline tty is used both by the military services and by commercial communication companies. The Navy uses radio teletypewriter (rtty) mainly for high-speed automatic communications across ocean areas. The tty unit is equipped with a keyboard similar to a typewriter. When the operator presses a key, a sequence of signals is transmitted. At receiving stations, the signals are fed into terminal equipment that translates the sequences of signals into letters, figures, and symbols and types the messages automatically. The rtty mode of transmission and reception is rapidly becoming more efficient and reliable for communications between ships and from ship-to-shore. Ships copy what is known as "fleet broadcast" messages on rtty. The speed at which message traffic is transmitted on rtty circuits depends on the equipment in use. Normal speed of operation is 100 words per minute, but it may be faster or slower. You may find high-speed equipment, capable of printing a line or even a page at a time, in some communications centers. The use of rtty has brought about a considerable savings in manpower. Facsimile Facsimile (fax) is the process used to transmit photographs, charts, and other graphic information electronically. The image to be transmitted is scanned by a photoelectric cell. Electrical changes in the cell output, corresponding to the light and dark areas being scanned, are transmitted to the receiver. At the receiver, the signal operates a recorder that reproduces the picture. The fax signals may be transmitted either by landline or radio. Facsimile transmissions suffer distortion from all of the common sources of interference experienced with ordinary radiotelegraph and radio teletypewriter. Certain characteristics of TIF transmission make it less susceptible to complete loss of intelligence. For example, picture quality will be downgraded by any noise bursts, since facsimile recording is a continuous recording of signals coming from a receiver.


Secondary applications of the vlf range include worldwide transmission of standard frequency and time signals. Standard frequency and time signals with high accuracy over long distances have become increasingly important in many fields of science. It is essential for tracking space vehicles, worldwide clock synchronization and oscillator calibration, international comparisons of atomic frequency standards, radio navigational aids, astronomy, national standardizing laboratories, and communications systems. A vlf broadcast of standard time and frequency signals has more than adequate precision for the operation of synchronous cryptographic devices, decoding devices, and single-sideband transmissions. Low-Frequency Communications The LOW-FREQUENCY (If) band occupies only a very small part of the radio-frequency spectrum. This small band of frequencies has been used for communications since the advent of radio. Low-frequency transmitting installations are characterized by their large physical size and by their high construction and maintenance costs. Another disadvantage is low-frequency signal reception being seriously hampered by atmospheric noise, particularly at low geographical latitudes. Over the years, propagation factors peculiar to the low-frequency band have resulted in their continued use for radio communications. Low-frequency waves are not so seriously affected during periods of ionospheric disturbance when communications at the high frequencies are disrupted. Because of this, the Navy has a particular interest in the application of low frequencies at northern latitudes. The Navy's requirement to provide the best possible communications to the fleet requires operation on all frequency bands. Constant research is being done to improve existing capabilities and to use new systems and developments as they become operationally reliable. In the past, the fleet broadcast system provided ships at sea with low-frequency communications via cw telegraph transmissions. As technology advanced, the system was converted to single-channel radio teletypewriter transmission. Today If communications is used to provide eight channels of frequency- division multiplex rtty traffic on each transmission of the fleet multichannel broadcast system.


If desired the distress frequencies may be monitored. When this is done the transmitter usually is kept in the standby position. Ashore, the mf receiver and transmitter equipment configuration is usually affiliated with search and rescue organizations, which are generally located near the coast. Only the upper and lower ends of the mf band have naval use because of the commercial broadcast band (AM) extending from 535 to 1,605 kilohertz. Frequencies in the lower portion of the mf band (300 to 500 kilohertz) are used primarily for ground-wave transmission for moderately long distances over 1-12 water and for moderate to short distances over land. Transmission in the upper mf band is generally limited to short-haul communications (400 miles or less). High-Frequency Communications The Navy began using HIGH FREQUENCIES for radio communications around World War I when only a few communications systems were operated on frequencies near 3 megahertz. When we look at the extensive present-day use of high frequencies for long-distance communications, the fact that those Navy systems were intended for very short-range communications of a few miles seems curious. The general belief at the time was that frequencies above 1.5 megahertz were useless for communications purposes. One of the prominent features of high-frequency, long-distance communications is the variable nature of the propagation medium. (You studied this in NEETS, Module 10, Introduction to Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines, and Antennas). Successful transmission of hf signals over a long distance is dependent upon refraction of radio waves by layers of the ionosphere. The height and density of these layers is formed mainly by ultraviolet radiation from the sun. They vary significantly with the time of day, season of the year, and the eleven-year cycle of sunspot activity. Because of these variations, you must generally use more than a single frequency, sometimes up to four or five, to maintain communications on a circuit.


In spite of the difficulties we encounter with hf propagation, the economic and technical advantages of using high frequencies have led to rapid expansion of the use of the hf band. Because the number of users has increased, the hf spectrum is approaching saturation. The hf band is shared by many domestic and foreign users, and only portions scattered throughout the band are allocated to the military services. Like other agencies, Navy requirements have grown; the capacity of the Navy's assigned portion of the hf spectrum has become severely taxed. The use of single¬ sideband equipment and the application of independent sideband techniques have increased the capacity, but not enough to catch up with the demand. Some predict that satellite communications will eventually relieve congestion in the hf band and that, for some types of service, it will replace hf for long-distance communications. We will present more information to you concerning satellite communications in chapter 3. Even with new technology the hf spectrum most likely will continue to be in high demand for some time. Naval communications within the hf band can be grouped into four general types of services: point- to-point, ship-to-shore, ground-to-air, and fleet broadcast. All but the fleet broadcast are normally operated with two-way communications. Some of these services involve ships and aircraft that present special problems because of their physical characteristics and mobility. Generally, the less than optimum hf performance of this shipboard equipment is at least partially offset by powerful transmitters and sensitive receiving systems at the shore terminals. POINT-TO-POINT. —Point-to-point systems are established to communicate over long-distance trunks or links between fixed terminals. A trunk is normally a message circuit between two points that are both switching centers or individual message distribution points.


A link is a transmitter-receiver system connecting two locations. Generally, enough real estate is acquired at the terminals to permit the use of large, high-gain antennas aimed at opposite terminals of each link. This increases the effective radiated power and the sensitivity of the receiving system; it also reduces susceptibility of a circuit to interference. With the path length and direction fixed, other propagation factors are simplified and highly reliable communications can be achieved. 1-13 SHIP-TO-SHORE. —This application of the hf band is more difficult than point-to-point since the ship is moving and constantly changing its position. In ship-to-shore the path length and direction are variable. Aboard ship, limited space and other restrictions prohibit installation of large, efficient hf antennas. Because of the mobility of ships, shipboard antennas are designed to be as nearly omnidirectional as possible. Our problems are not as severe at the shore terminal where we have sufficient space for efficient omnidirectional antennas or arrays designed for coverage of large areas of the earth. At shore stations, rotatable, high-gain antennas or fixed, point-to-point antennas are used. For example, a rhombic antenna ashore may work well for long-haul, ship-to-shore communications when the ship is within range of the antenna. Several frequencies are usually assigned for each circuit. Therefore, a frequency can be selected that best matches the propagation path conditions between the shore terminal and the ship. GROUND-TO-AIR. —The use of hf radio for ground-to-air communications is similar to ship-to- shore. The only exception is an aircraft moves more rapidly than a ship. All major circuit improvements must be made at the ground station. For example, higher powered transmitters, lower noise receivers, and more efficient antennas must be used on the ground.


FLEET BROADCASTS. —As the name implies, this service involves broadcast area coverage from shore-based transmitters to ships at sea. Messages to be sent to ships are delivered by various means to the proper broadcast station. They are then broadcast for shipboard reception. To overcome propagation problems, naval communicators send the messages on several frequencies at once. This is known as frequency-diversity transmission. This type of transmission allows the ship to choose the best frequency for reception. Space-diversity with physically separated receive antennas also helps to overcome this problem. Very-High-Frequency and Above Communications Frequencies above 30 megahertz are not normally refracted by the atmosphere and ground-wave range is minimal. This normally limits our use of this frequency spectrum to line of sight. The exception to this is increased range through the use of tropospheric scatter techniques. Some communications using vhf and above frequencies use a technique called forward propagation by tropospheric scatter (fpts). This method will be discussed in more detail in chapter 5. Certain atmospheric and ionospheric conditions can also cause the normal line-of-sight range to be extended. Frequencies at the lower end of this band are capable of overcoming the shielding effects of hills and structures to some degree; but as the frequency is increased, the problem becomes more pronounced. Reception is notably free from atmospheric and man-made static. (The VERY-HIGH- FREQUENCY (vhf) and ULTRAHIGH-FREQUENCY (uhf) bands are known as line-of-sight transmission bands.) Because this is line-of-sight communications, the transmitting antenna is in a direct line with the receiving antenna and not over the horizon. The line-of-sight characteristic makes the vhf band ideal for amphibious operations (beach landing from sea craft) and the uhf well suited for tactical voice transmissions (maneuvering of ships traveling together).


SEMIDUPLEX. —The semiduplex (sdx) uses an arrangement of equipment where one terminal is simplex configured and the other uses two channels or frequencies in full duplex. A clarifying example is 1-15 a ship in a simplex mode terminated full duplex with a shore station. The ship may send or receive but not do both at the same time. FULL DUPLEX. —The full-duplex (fdx) mode is a method of operation in which telecommunications between stations takes place simultaneously in both directions using two separate frequencies. In other words, a ship may send and receive different messages at the same time. The term "full duplex" is synonymous with "duplex." BROADCAST. —Broadcast (be) is the type of operation in which one station transmits information on one or more channels directed to more than one station and/or unit. The broadcast system has no provision for receipt or reply; however, special arrangements may require the receiving station to reply or receipt for the message at a later time by other means. Broadcasts are the primary means of delivering messages to the fleet. Since Navy units copying broadcasts are not required to receipt for messages received, they can maintain radio silence while still receiving essential messages. Message traffic is normally sent to the fleet by three methods: broadcast, intercept, and receipt. The first two are "do not answer" methods; the third, as its name implies, requires a receipt from the addressee (addee) for each message. Broadcast and intercept methods allow the fleet to preserve radio silence, which is a great advantage from the standpoint of security. By the intercept method, a shore radio station transmits messages to another shore station that repeats them back. Ships intercept and copy all of this message traffic. Broadcast is preferable to intercept chiefly because it is faster. It is the method by which nearly all fleet traffic is handled.


Montana employment and labor force

On the bright side, Richland County still has the best success ratio of wildcat drilling with 50 percent positive results. In 1982 a westward shift of activity occurred in oil and gas development. The Sweetgrass Arch and adjacent Sweetgrass Hills over- took the Williston Basin in the total number of wells drilled. Seismic surveying and land leasing reached an all time peak in the western Montana Overthrust Belt. "Copper is king" is a statement that has for many years floated around Butte, but now the saying might be changed to "copper is a culprit". The massive layoffs by the copper company will end with the last 700 employees losing their jobs by June. In June, 1983, a "suspension" will stop all remaining operations of the mining and processing of copper ore from the Berkeley Pit, concentrator and general office in Butte. Management will reopen their facilities when the price of copper makes mining profitable. A weak agricultural economy has persisted for three years. The farmers outlook for the next year does not appear good because of the state's and nation's record crops in 1982 and an expected weak over- seas market. The government has added another agricultural program called Payment In Kind (PIK). The farmer who wishes to set aside ad- ditional acreage will be paid with grain that is in government storage. The PIK program is aimed at reducing the surplus grain stock. The Payment In Kind program is a short-time solution to aid agriculture. The depressed agriculture status has affected manufacturers of farm equipment perhaps more than other manufacturing. Several bankruptcies were filed and large layoffs were the result. Agriculture equipment manufacturing in Montana has, for the most part, come into existence in just the past three years. GREAT FALLS SMSA In 1982, two of the three months that had total building permits valued over one million dollars were in the fourth quarter.


Montana employment and labor force

Other projects included the building of a new warehouse office complex for a drilling company in Sidney, and some light remodeling of local business establishments. The months of November and December had very little construction activity as winter weather had curtailed most jobs. Several contrac- tors indicated that they are finding themselves with no anticipated jobs for the first time in 10-20 years. The number of active oil drilling rigs working in Montana (including Williston Basin) has declined by 70% compared to 86 reported during the same period one year ago. This reduction in drilling ac- tivity continues to boost the unemployment rate in the LMA. Callbacks by various drilling companies were temporary, primarily for them to maintain their leases. There was some work for various seismic crews, however it was sporadic due to weather conditions. Several Canadian drilling companies have moved their rigs to Canada due to more favorable programs adopted by the provincial governments. 9 The sugar beet harvest got off to a slow start due to bad weather conditions. By the third week of October the harvest ranged from 70-75% and by mid-November was about 98% finished. The delay in the harvest- ing of the beets also affected the manufacturing of the sugar, however it picked up and should continue into February. In the retail/wholesale industry merchants were being cautious about hiring any new employees for the holiday season until they deter- mined what the business trends were going to be like. The number of business closures continue to be plagued by the economy in this area as a clothing store, a saddlery and a realty of- fice closed their doors. Hotels and motels are experiencing about 30-40% fewer occupancies compared to previous years. Although there were some brightners in the jobless picture for the months of July and August the area job situation for the last three months remains bleak as there were seven times the number of people out of jobs in the six-county area this year than last.


Montana employment and labor force

Negotiations between the beet growers and a sugar company on the price for the 1983 crop have stalled. If a settlement is not reached the growers in the area probably won't plant any beets this year. Coal deals are being explored by the Crow Indian tribe. They are looking into the development of a coal fired generating plant and perhaps a synthetic fuels project. Currently, however, adequate sup- plies of oil and natural gas have made these alternative energy projects less attractive. In 1982 production of coal in Montana did not reach projected levels and some mines in the area have laid off their work force. HAVRE IMA A tractor manufacturing firm out of Havre is recalling some of its administrative personnel but has no plans for starting up production for a few months. The company is in the process of bidding on an Army Corps of Engineers job. 10 With only 9 employees working, a drilling rig manufacturing plant decided to close its doors. Previously the plant had employed 40 people. Plans are to reopen in a couple of years. The Havre LMA reports a few business closures during the fourth quarter. They are: a Chinook clothing store, and a Havre bed and bath store, auto dealer, and department store. Construction projects in Havre include two grain loading facilities. Also a remodeling project is underway at the College. Other construction projects in the Havre area are the Junior High School building and a new clinic. Most new businesses in the area are trade related businesses. They include: a music and sound store, jewelry store, Chinese restaurant, wig shop and a art gallery. Other new businesses includes two tax con- sulting businesses. . .One in Rudyard and one in Chinook and one in a new laundry center in Chinook. A new doctor has opened a practice in Havre.


Montana employment and labor force

Most of this activity came from multifamily housing and commer- cial projects. The residential activity was largely limited to remodels, and do-it-yourselfers' projects. Winter activity resorts started hiring during the quarter with most looking for a good year.... if the weather cooperates. The Troy silver-copper mine continues to show a profit and gives employement to 340 area residents. .. .putting $9.2 million annually into the area economy from payroll alone. If interest rates stay down, spring may bring new life to the area's woods products and associated industries. LEWISTOWN LMA Most components of the Lewistown area economy slowed during the fourth quarter. The major portion of this decrease in activity was the normal seasonal slowdown. Agriculture slowed considerably as area farmers and ranchers finished up the harvest and other summer activities. Most ag activity 13 this quarter was in winter crop seeding and preparation for winter cat- tle feeding. Area manufacturers were affected by the state and national economic slump. Two lumber mills closed completely until their inventories are decreased. About 45 workers have been idled by the temporary shutdowns. On the plus side, operations were nearly back to normal at the drywall plant, and an aircraft manufacturer is considering locating a plant in Lewistown. Construction activity has generally slowed due to weather conditions. Most housing, street repair, and sewer projects have halted until better weather arrives. The inside remodeling of a Lewistown motel is continuing with a projected completion date of April/May 1983. Christmas sales brought a much needed boost to area retailers. For many retailers this Christmas was a make or break situation. The next few months will tell if the Christmas sales volume was enough. Holiday sales couldn't have helped a Lewistown automobile dealer that closed permanently. Even with the slump in retailing several new businesses opened during the quarter.


Montana employment and labor force

A few stores closed their doors due to lack of business. Christmas buying was about the same as last year, but not enough to make up for lack of sales over the rest of the year. 14 MISSOULA LMA As the prime interest rate continues to drop, real estate sales started an upward swing and the area's estimated September unemployment rate made a modest decrease of 0.6 percent from August's 10.2%. This trend provided some optimism that maybe the soft economy in the LMA area may soon show signs of steady recovery. Just as rapid as the residential real estate sales increased in September, they began to start a dramatic drop downward in October. Sales remained low for the rest of the report period, with residential sales down by $4 million this year to date (October) and $51.6 million compared to 1981 sales (October). Although prognosis of the economy may indicate that nationally we are bottoming out of the recession, the known fact locally is the Mis- soula area's economy is still in a deep slump. The Missoula LMA includes Missoula, Mineral, Sanders and Ravalli counties. In this area the estimated unemployment rates for the months of October, November and December continued to climb. Traditionally unemployment rises this time of year and stays relatively high throughout the winter because of the type of industries that are af- fected such as construction, logging and tourism. Presently, three of the four counties in the LMA are represented in Montana's 6 counties that has the highest unemployment rates. They are: Mineral, Ravalli and Sanders counties. Orders for lumber products are still below the trend for the rest of the lumber industry in the northwest, and projections are expected to remain "sub-par" through 1983. Other contributing factors also help spur on the problems of high unemployment as railroad officials announced that they will trim their work force another 4% in the coming months.


Microcomputer simulation of a Fourier approach to ultrasonic wave propagation.

The Guyomar/Powers approach differed by the use of linear systems theory. Linear systems theory revealed the importance of the total impulse response and its equivalence to the Green's function. Furthermore, the spatial impulse response functions are found in the spatial transform (Fourier) domain. Working in the transform domain allowed propagation of the wave to be viewed as a time-varying spatial filter applied to the spatial spectrum of the input excitation. The advantage of this method is that it provides the diffracted field from an insonifying wave with arbitrary temporal and spatial dependence in a computationally efficient form. By use of the Fourier transform, an amenable computer implementation of this technique using FFT routines is possible. The desired benefit of a fast, time-efficient computer implementation to calculate the acoustic potential or pressure is to aid in ultrasonic transducer design for medical, acoustic imaging, and mine warfare applications. With a knowledge of wave diffraction phenomenon a diffracted wave reflected from an unknown object can be used to provide information about the object. This type of system must be portable as well as time-efficient, which is very achievable given the trends in computer technology. Computers have become faster and have increased memory capacity while their size has decreased. Other benefits are derived from the use of the matrix manipulation program, MATLAB, and the ability to expand this implementation to cases involving lossy media. Because MATLAB is readily available on the commercial market, it requires no special equipment for computer implementation. Previous computer implementations have been Fortran coded [Ref. 11] to be run on mainframes and microcomputers. The specific goal of the microcomputer implementation by Merrill [Ref. 11] was a run time under 30 minutes; this goal was achieved. Merrill first attempted to use MATLAB, but failed due to limitations on computer memory and MATLAB array size.


AC_FIL generated the time-varying filters, the most time consuming process, while AC_PROP accomplished the remaining computations making use of MATLAB's "fft2" function. Details of both modules as well as the source code have been included in the Appendices for the interested reader. Several examples were delineated in the body of this thesis. First, the Table and 45 the Circle were presented as the program verification excitations; the results conformed to those found in the literature. Then two newer excitation functions, the Gaussian and the Bessel, were presented. More examples of the Gaussian and the Bessel have been included in the Appendices. The underlying result was an accurate and efficient computer implementation of the linear systems approach to ultrasonic wave propagation. The efficiency was derived from the modularization of the program so that consecutive runs could be made without recomputing the most time consuming portion, the filters. Also, the use of MATLAB's "fft2" function bypassed tedious and time-inefficient convolution integrals. Finally, both modules made use of symmetry by computing only one quadrant of data which was then manipulated into the remaining quadrants. An advantage to using MATLAB was the ease of expansion that could be accomplished with the program. The work of this thesis concentrated on a source with rigidly baffled boundary conditions and a lossless media. Cases that include free space and resiliently baffled boundary conditions as well as lossy media, linear and quadratic lossy media, could be incorporated. A few facts worth noting here are that the free space and resilient baffle boundary conditions can be expressed in terms of the rigid baffle case [Ref. 8] and that the lossy media and lossless media transfer functions are interdependent [Ref. 10]. Furthermore, new excitation functions such as a phased array or a focused source could also be incorporated. Improvements are needed in the area of analysis such as the Gaussian versus Bessel propagation comparison and extending the 46 technique to sources that are not time and space separable such as new non- diffracting waves [Ref. 14]. 47 APPENDIX A.


Minimum requirements for municipal solid waste landfill in the state of Kuwait

The disposal of wastes in Kuwait frequently results in environmental degradation even with spending that amount of money. A logical approach to reduce such waste disposal problems is to establish a minimum requirement for landfill siting and design methods (Boll et at. 1995). As a result, cost will be reduced and the environment and hunuin health will be protected. For a small country like Kuwait, land value is precious for both the government and the conserve money, Kuwait should esU^lish minimum guidelines that regulate wasle management and increase the level of awareness for the iuture dangers of such inadequate practices in waste disposal. Problem Statement Municipal solid waste (MSW) disposal practice in the state of Kuwait creates a great threat to the country's environment and human health. The current pcacdce of disposal is dumping waste into a group of sand quarries, on average depth of S-l 8 meters, and then covering them with sand. Municipal solid waste disposal sites receive all sons of waste materials like sewage wasle, chemical waste, and debris. The different wastes are commingled, with rarely a sorting procedure or a compaction operation. Also, most of the wastes are exposed to the high lempeialure of Kuwait and placed in steep slopes. The cuneni disposal sites are operated by companies lacking any sanitary engineering experience in terms of designing, opeialing, or monitoring environmentally safe landfills. Municipal Solid Wasle Landlills (MSWLFs) that ensure the protection of human health and the environment. MSWLF units In Kuwait act as dumping grounds rather than safe disposal sites. These units include non of the components thsi provide basic environmental protection, such as a base liner, final cover system, gas collection system, and leachate collection system (if needed). From the curreui practice, comaminauon of the ground- water table is possible due to the nearby location of the water table beneath the bollom of waste disposal sites.


Because Kuwait has an arid climate, a relatively small amount of leachate will be developed in landfill sites. Neverthclea.s. an assumed increase of the amount of leachate will develope due to the improper disposal of liquid sewage and chemical wastes with municipal wastes. The lack of proper MSW guidelines that ensure the protection of the environment and human health Is a major problem for the Kuwait Municipality, the only government agency that deals with MSW disposal practices. The need for such guidelines that follow proper disposal practice is a must for the country's environment. These guidelines will enable Kuwait Municipality to implement safe disposal methods for new landfills and use the proper closure systems for the old sites. The proposed research will not only control the waste piaclice, but also it will address the applicability of natural resources, such as Kuwait's impermeable calcareous layer of sand (Gatch), as liners and covers. Furthermore, the research will provide new specific guidelines that will apply to countries with arid climates. Finally, there is a great demand to protect the environment and human health. Therefore, a comprehensive study that defines the problem, develops practical solutions, and drafts a government document is very essential to Kuwait. Research Purpose The principal elective of this research is to help the Kuwait Municipality to build safe MSW disposal sites that protect the environment and human health. The outcome of the research will be based on field and lab tests that will be performed to achieve this goal. The research will shed light upon the applicability of using high-density polyethylene (HOPE) liners in Kuwait and calcareous saitd (gatch) as a natural liner and cover. Furthermore, the research will study the effects of improper dumping practices on the environment, soil, and groundwater analytically by using contaminant transport computer programs.


The Kuwait Municipality Counsel, which controls all the funding to solid waste projects, lacks the ability to fund and approve a safe municipal solid waste landfill due to the absence of a decision-based model which illustrates the following: 1. The problem, prescni and fonire Impacts on human life and the environment, and the importance for future safe disposal solutions. 2. A well-drafted regulation that suits Kuwait's environment and complies with the latest technology of MSW practices in the developed countries. 3. A complete description for economic saving with environmentally sound integrated waste systems; operational cost effecdve plans for future invesunent and profit from the industry. Politics and economics are the major Issues that customarily play a role in ^fting from sub-standard practice to a safe technology. The Department of Environmental Affairs in Kuwait Municipality is acting positively to diiect the Kuwait Municipality Council to consider the options available for municipal waste disposal practice. Public attitudes toward the problem of wa.stc disposal practices are still not very powerful compared to other developed countries. Sharmaand SaDgeeUi(l994) stated that the increasing public awareness of environmental issues has resulted in various federal and slate environmental regulations in the United Stales of America. Lack of general knowledge about the danger that faces the public and the environment from recent waste disposal practices is the mode for the Kuwaiti people. Public outcry usually comes from individual groups in certain locations that have been affected by the disposal process. For example, people reacted positively to stop the disposal in the Jalecb Al-Shuyoukh site because of foul odors and a nest of insects and animals that accompanied the unsanitary method from the increase in volume of waste arriving or the site during the Iraqi occupation and the post-liberation period. Also, in 1992 public outcry increased at the Al- that caused disgusting odors, gas emissions, and spontaneous firas.


The sites receive all kinds of wastes such as food wastes, oii produ- debris, agricultural wastes, chemical materials, and sewage wastes. Although the sites have some employees from the contracted company or from Kuwait Municipality, th is DO obvious control on the sites. Dumping can be performed as easily os throwin tissue from your car in most locations, illegal night dumping is a usual practice for wi carriers if officials did not accept what you wanted to dump during daytime. Lack security and responsibility are obvious at these sites. Keisuke (1996) stated that landftlling processes should be selected in a fashion which maximize the accotnmodat capacity of a landfi)). select the method of cooslnictioo io accordance with the volume waste to be curried into the landfill site, and to minimize the harmful effirots on surrounding environment after or before closure. Neither of the previous objectives londftll management bos been implemenicti in Kuwait's waste disposal sites. The si have many operation and management problems, which can be described briefly by following points: 1 . All the sites were not designed for dumping wastes 2. No permit is granted to the private operator at any lime. As a resuil operator has no obligation in protecting the environmeoi 3. Absence of clear and illustrative task plans 4, ImproperdisposaJ strategies 3. Lack of order and security 7. Lack of sufficiem equipment and tools The process of waste disposal in those sites is mainly to dump the waste as close twice. Usually compaction is not performed. After that, the Rubber-Tired Front End Loader pushes the waste to the quarry until the ground level is reached. At the end of day. the waste Is coveted with a thin layer of sand. Many paitsof the waste pile, especially the sides, are not covered periodically due to the steep slopes. This procedure is causing more bad odors, and self waste combustion due to high temperature and humidity in the country.


Items II, 13. and 14 mandate the contractor to hire une qualified employee as a supervisor that can manage the site. The items also describe the financial responsibilities of the contractor based on the bid. 6. Item 10 demands that every site should have steel fences covered by plastic with specified height and distances. Clearly, the IS Items that address site operation in the N 1/96 bid lack to the establishment of appropriate operation criteria for sanitary landfills. Many of the tools missing in the contmcl, which are widely mandated by different regulations all over the I. Operation plan ihal conraina, ol minimuin, detailed inslructioDS for the daily operation of the landfill, contingency operations for waste handling In case of emergency, method and sequence of filing waste, and operation of gas, leachate, and stormwater controls. 2. Records of weighing incoming waste. 3. Detailed handling of hazardous wastes if identified by random waste 4. Placement of waste methods that specify the required thickness before and after compacdon and assure slope stability requirements. 5. Daily and intermediale cover plana. 6. Erosion control measures, dust control methods, and Ere protection and Ere-Eghting capabilities. 7. Inspecdon plans including frequency, personnel, and training prograiru for the facility employees. The operator is obliged waste sites and the current waste inch diameter plastic pipes wi Egures. as follows: 1 and operate gas vendng systems for the old stated in Item 1 6. The system consists of 6 to 8 nch thickness. Lengths of these pipes range 1. Place perforated plastic pipes vertically on the last layer of waste and pouring a light cement mix to hold it. The pipes sha 4, The distance between the pipes shall be no more than 100 meters. N 1/96 bid from the landfill engineering prospective is lacking many of the different systems of MSW landfill design that cause a public nuisance or create a potential hazard to public health, welfare or the environment.


The soil being tested must have sufficient cohesion to stand open during excavation of borehole and have a uniform permeability end pore space distribution (ASTM Z2d09Z). lO-cm (4-inch) inside diameter ffD) casing has been used in virtually all of the known tests. To avoid violating boundary conditions assumed in the equations, the thickness of the unit tested must be 61-cm (24-ioches) or 81.3-cm |32-inches) if the barrier is not underlain by dminoge blanket or by a material far less permeable than the unit tested (ASTM Z2509Z). Also, the minimum casing embedment below ground surface must be 2S.4 cm (lO-incbes) to prevent uplift and minimize hydraulic fracturing (Boutwell 1 992). Furthermore, the minimum horizontal distances between tests or lesu to free surface are 3-m (120-inches). A typical test program consists of five TSB's and a temperature effect gauge (TEG). The TEG is used as a control device to determine changes in head caused by variations in temperature and barometric pressure (Benson et al. 1997). TEG is a TSB that has a sealed bottom to prevent flow and is filled with digital thermometer for tracking temperature changes in the infiltration water. The signiflcance of TSB is the fact that it can measure hydraulic conductivity in vertical and horizontal direction. Most of tire field permeability tests do not have this advantage. Also, TSB is easy to install and can be used at great depths and on slopes (Danial 1 989). ADparatua and Field Procedure TSB field procedure is taken from long-established US Bureau of Reclamation methods, flush bottom borehole test (E-18) and borehole packer test (E-19) (Boutwell 1992). American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) has recently approved a standard method for field measurement of hydraulic conductivity limits of porous materials using TSB (ASTM Z2509Z). This method is utilized for compacted fills or natural deposits, above or below the water Uible. that has a mean hydraulic conductivity less than or equal to IxlO’’ cm/sec.


Schematic Diagr data on the computer screen. During the test, constant pressures for the cell pressure (o, } and bock pressure (pi) were supplied frora rwo independent pressure supply sources while an overhead water tank, located at 3 m high, was used to supply the pressure, pj. The water tank was also used for Initial satuniljon of the specimen. A volume transducer was connected to the pi line to measure the amount of water passing through the specimen. The specimens for testing were saturated prior to testing and, 03 was held higher than the net pressure causing a flow of the water through the specimen by at least 20 KFa during saturation as well as testing. Preparation of lest specimen The program of permeability deteimination in the laboratory was carried out on specimens having a nominal dimension of 71-mm in diameter and ISO-mm in height (Figure 6-8), using a backpressure, p]. All specimens were aniricially prepared at the optimum moisture content at their corresponding maximum dry densities given in Table 6-4. The preparation method involved lamping soils in five equal layers in a standard laboratory cylindrical mold of the same nominal dimension as the specimen. The specimen preparation as well as the testing procedure followed ASTM DS084. The soil was air-dried and was then mixed as uniformly as possible. The quantity required for one layer was weighed, mixed evenjy with an appropriate quantity of water, and then poured into the cylindrical mold. The soil was compressed using a meiai tamper until the layer thickness, marked on the inner wall, was attained. The upper side of the tube containing the specimen was leveled off, once the whole quandey had been introduced. The specimen was then extruded from the mold and measured for true dimensions and placed on the pedestal base of the triaxial cell. The specimen ends were covered with the water-saturated filter blocks (porous stones), and a Figure 6-8 Trianiel Semple of South Sum Soil ptessuie pad placed on the top of upper porous stones.


FIELD TESTS Site Descriplion Field tests were conducted ol two sites, Shuwaik IndusirioJ Area and Shuaiba Industrial Area (Figure 7-1). The Shuwaik site was designated by the Kuwait Municipality (KM) to perform a Two-Stage Borehole Tests (TSB) and a temperature monitoring program on constructed galch pads. On the other band, the Shuaiba site was investigated after receiving permission of the Shuaiba Area Authority (SAA) to conduct a series of TSB tests on the Inert Waste Cell located at the Solid Waste Treatment and Reception Station (SWTRS). The SWTRS is sUll not in operation due to management problems, although SWTRS facilities were constructed and it was ready to receive waste in 1996. Shuwaik Site The Shuwaik Industrial Area (Site 1) is located in the center of Kuwait City, within Kuwait suburbs, along the major Fourth Ring Road that extends from east to west. The area is bounded on the north by the Shuwaik port, on the south by the Al-Ray area. Shuwaik is famous for its automotive repair and supply industry that is associated with area units and administrative facilities that occupy parts of the Shuwaik area. Moreover. vaier table in the area ranges between 4 to 5 1 surface. Tbe site for the testing program was located in the soccer field of the Kuwait Municipality (KM) storage complex area, which is located at the south sector of the and used equipment. The site is fenced and has one main entrance gate controlled by The soccer field was about 100x100 meters and can be described as a flat area that consists of smooth windblown dune sand with sparse vegetation. KM ofncials designated an area of 40x40 meters for the construction of the gatch pads. The selected area was located at the south pan of the soccer field, and was surrounded by a paved road The Shuaiba Industrial Area (SIA), (Site 2). is located about 50 kilometers south of Kuwait City while the SWTRS is located in ihe northern pan of the SIA.


Apparently the cracks were not deep enough to affect the permeability of the soil. Also, cracks over tune, seem to seal when desiccation cycles are involved. Overall gatch .its that lay at great depths may be considered os a sufficieni barrier if protected environmental distraction by a drainage layer or similar systems. CHAPTER 8 POLLUTE PROGRAM Concepl and Featufcs PolIuuv6 is a computer program that provides a solution to the one<dimen5ionaJ dispersioR'adveclion equation for a layered deposit of Anite or inAnile extent. The advection'dispersion equations are sImpliAed by introducing the Laplace ironsform. The program faJls Into a semi-analytic class of models known os Finite Layer Models that are applicable to idealizing hydrostradgraphy. horizontally layered with the soil properties being the same at any horizontal location within the layer (Rowe el al. 1995). The main diAerence between anaiytical solutions and Anile layer techniques is the fact that the Laplace transfonn in the Anile layer Is inverted numerically rather than analytically, which allows examination of more realistic cases (Rowe 1 990). By using of finite layer solutions in Polluiev6. contaminant concentrations and the total mass Aux into barriers can be accurately calculated al specified limes and depths. Also, the accuracy of the solution does not depend on the number of layers into which the deposit is subdivided in contrast to numerical solutions, and the concentration of contaminant can be determined instantly al a speciAc lime without prior determination of die concentradon al the preceding lime. Ihe pit^ram has been used internationally for about ten years, and is currenUy being used in Australia, Germany, Great Britain, New Zealand, United Slates of America, and in Canada where the program was used in the design of numerous landfills. For a detailed accoiml of Pollulev6 program applications and workability, refer to the Pollute user guide by Rowe el al. <1994).


The Department of Environmental Affaires (DEA)al KM formed a team of five members headed by the GUF member. The team made several field visits os existing landfills and conducted borehole tests on selected proposed landfill sites. Furthermore, the team contacted government authorities and research institutions to collect specific data such as topography, water table levels, soil types, location of water wells, and waste types and quantities etc. that were required to conduct the study. The purpose of conducting this project was to select future solid waste landfill sites, to draft a design manual for solid waste landfill faculties, to prepare terms of reference, and then possibly lender the project. The site selection study consisted of evaluating the proposed sites in two stages. The first siege (Stage I) was a Yes or No case for each site, and the second stage (Stage 11) was conducted by using the total weight selection method. Initially, nine proposed landfill locations were Idenlifled In different locations of Kuwait; two in the north, three in the center, and four in the south. According to the Kuwait Municipality (1998). the project should develop a total of three landfills that would be constructed in two phases. The fim phase (Phase I) would consist of two service zones with two landfills: one in centra] Kuwait and another one in the southern area. The second phase (Phase H) would consist of three service zones and include the addition of another landfill sle located in the northern area of Kuwait. The Phase II new landfill would propose to receive waste oAer at least five years of esiobllshing Phase (I). Zone selections for the two phases were determined based on the Kuwait Master Plan (1997). and considering the following factors (Kuwait Municipality 1998): 1 . Distribution of solid waste production based on population figures 2. Distance, time and convenience for collecting wastes 3.


Monterey news

The resurrection accounts in each of the gospels will be studied, as well as I Corinthians 1:15-58. Some of the questions and issues being dealt with are: What are the quali- ties of the resurrected Christ? What are the implications of Christ’s resurrection for our lives here and now? What are the implications of Christ’s resurrection for the future of our lives? What suggestions do we have regarding the “shape of the life to come” as regards our body-soul nature? Why is the resurrection one of the principal centers around which Chris- tian belief is formed? Does the resurrection have implications that help us shape—not only a belief about the present and future of persons—but also the world? As the study proceeds other questions will arise and will be addressed. Anyone in the community who desires is invited to come to any or all of these Thursday evening classes. NEW INITIATIVES IN CHURCH DEVELOPMENT “New Initiatives in Church Development” is the name given to the campaign to raise funds throughout the United Church of Christ for the establishment of new churches and for the revitalization of existing churches. The Monterey Church is engaged in advancing this program during the spring season, The diaconate has taken especial responsi- bility to help develop this program in Monterey. Jean Stowell is helping coordinate the educational phase of the program. In time each person in the church will be asked to consider the support he/she will give to help the church deepen its ministry to people through this process. ‘USED CLOTHING COLLECTION | It’s time for the annual used clothing collection. Since 1946, when 17 Protestant denominations banded to- gether to meet needs in the aftermath of World War II, Church World Services has been offering compassionate as- sistance to people caught in disasters and other events of criti- cal need.


Monterey news

The actual means of growth is often resisted. We honor the growing up process, yet we frequently try to avoid the experiences through which growth comes. The emergence of personhood is surrounded with puzzling paradoxes. Alternating rhythms flow through all of nature; night and day, summer and winter, high tide and low tide, seedtime and harvest—and the list has barely begun. It should not surprise us, then, that the development of personality also has its rhythms. — There is a rhythm between agony and joy that is an integral part of growth. Can anyone have lived long enough without encountering it? Do not there come those times of early prom- ise and movement when it appears that success and happiness are certain? Yet often, seemingly without rhyme or reason things start to go wrong, and a period of readjustment ensues. What sort of perversity is built into the life process that returns again and again to threaten the forward movement? Here, for instance, is a marriage. Everyone is impressed with what a well-matched couple they are. In fact, they even think so themselves. Yet in two or three years things happen that threaten their happiness. Why now do their personalities start to rub on one another? Is there a perversity built into the scheme of things that seems determined to crush hope and joy? Certainly it dppears that way when the rough places appear. Would not all of us sidestep these rocky places if we could? Passing through enough of these times we begin to see a pattern emerging. The agonies of life force us into periods of change. We simply are not permitted to stay as we are. There is no way to stay fixed, set in our ways, no matter how hard we try. Life seems determined to throw us off balance.


Monterey news

During the month of March the second grade has been working on Easter projects—fluffy bunny baskets and hand- painted Easter eggs for the classroom egg tree. They com- pleted the unit on rocks and water, and on March 31 they en~ joyed hot cross buns which they frosted themselves. The fourth grade traveled to Gould Farm on March 25 to see maple syrup being made. Cory Loder, father of Brooke Loder (a fourth grader), gave the class a tour of the barns also, They loved seeing all the farm animals. The entire class and their teacher, Roberta Roy, were luncheon guests at the home of Cory and Nancy Loder. They had a delicious lunch of oat- meal pancakes, bacon and Gould Farm maple syrup. The fourth grade Tag & Bake Sale was a huge success: $345, was raised for the class trip to Mystic Seaport. Roberta Roy would like to thank all the parents and people of the com- munity who donated items and support. On March 31, the fourth grade held a scavenger hunt on the school grounds. The winning team consisted of Kenny Nicholson and Shane Stevens. } Cooking projects for the fourth grade during March were white gingerbread and Irish soda bread. Delicious! j An awards ceremony was held at the school on March 25, and Paul Langer, principal, gave awards to those childreil who participated in the MS Read-a-thon, St. Jude Math-a- thon and Partners in Reading (second quarter). For the MS Read-a-thon Jennifer Stevens, Colin Storti and Sean Storti were each awarded cameras for being the top money raisers The following students were given a frisbee and heat transfer Heather Gunther, Stacy Palfini, Naomi Sutphen, Ange Davis, Kimberly Gillette, Tiffany Stephens and Jennife Swann. Michael Ohman won a book; Darlene Bushey, a pe Kimberly Gillette, a stuffed dog.


Monterey news

Once a year Fire Company members are instructed in cardiopulmonary resuscitation, CPR. It’s what one does for victims of sudden illness or accident who have stopped breathing, or have no pulse or both. Members, augmented by a few wives and friends, met on a Wednesday night in March and sawa film in which CPR techniques were demonstrated; then everyone practiced the method on specially made manikins with rubber lungs and compressible sternums. Copies of a book put to- gether by the American Red Cross were made available to everyone for the week, and there was a written test to pass for certification as a person trained in CPR. Although these one- evening intensive training programs come a year apart, aftera few years, even without regular practice, and without an emergency that demands the skills, the techniques of CPR be- come familiar. This time around, it was a noticeable pleasure being in the new firehouse. Manikin practice was a grim and dusty chore at the old firehouse, something I for one was hardly aware of until I noticed how comfortable practice was in the clean, spacious, carpeted meeting room. When I mention this as a little practice, I speak for myself. There are six Fire Company members who have completed a lengthy course in medical emergency practices. Of these trained EMTs, Pat Andrus and Wayne Dunlop are now members of the Southern Berkshire Volunteer Ambulance Squad. They have a rotating schedule that gives each three nights of duty in a month, when they go to the Volunteer Ambulance garage at Fairview Hospital by 6 in the evening, and stay on until 8 next morning. Each also has duty one daya month on a weekend. Donald Whitbeck, who you may recall was too young to take the EMT certification test after he com- pleted training last year, has been working for three hours every weekday since last September with the Fairview Hospi- tal ambulance crew, as part of a program sponsored by the Southern Berkshire Educational Collaborative.


Monterey news

The most common salamander in the country, and the one most often seen in the Berkshires, is the red eft or newt. Liiinaeus must never have seen an eft. His description of “foul and loathsome animals” cannot be applied to the delicate orange sprite of damp leafy paths. The red eft is the teen-ager of the red-spotted newt, an olive- green salamander of lakes and ponds. Eggs are laid in the water and young hatch out with gills for oxygen exchange in the water. In late summer or early fall they lose their gills, leave the water, and turn bright orange or vermillion, with two rows of red spots along their backs, handsomely edged with black. They have rough, moist skin and beautiful golden eyelids. Efts may spend one to three years in the woods, ven- turing out by day to eat tiny snails and insects. Their only protection against predators is a poison they secrete through their skin, and the bright coloring they sport is a warning. The neurotoxin is harmless to people, but a blue jay who once picks up an eft spits it out hastily and will never grab a red salamander again. As it reaches maturity, the eft darkens and develops fins on its tail. It heads for water on a warm spring night and spends the rest of its life there in olive drab. Only the black-edged red spots of its flashy adolescence remain. The female is stimulated to lay her eggs by the wild thrashing and tail- waving of the male. They stay clasped together for as long as an hour, when the male lets go and deposits sperm-capped gelatin bundles called spermatophores on the bottom of the pond. The female follows close behind him, walks over the spermatophores, and draws them up into her cloaca.


Monterey news

Its golden brown color is from smoking, a process the Indians discovered which keeps leather pliable even after repeated soakings. The side flaps are covered with dark green cloth and edged with white beads. Smaller pan- els of blue cloth, inside the green area, are criss-crossed with meanders of white beads. The instep is decorated with delicate porcupine quill em- broidery and a central panel of large plaited quills. The panel is dyed in blocks of color, read- ing up from the toe: yellow, blue, red, blue, then the same sequence again. The embroi- dery is done by wrapping very fine quills around a close- stitched design in sinew thread. Both quills and thread are wet when the work is done, then shrink very hard and tight as they dry. The panel is framed by an embroidered line of red, then another of white. Flank- ing this are yellow meanders in pairs, each pair separated by a line of blue. They repeat the motif of the cloth panel but with a subtle variation, meeting but not criss-crossing. Each outer curve on the lateral meanders is decorated with a small red crescent with a white border. The moccasin is one of a pair given to Israel Dickinson of Stockbridge by Captain Konkapot around 1780. Dickinson’s great-grandson, Alan Peck, presented them to the Berkshire Museum in 1958. Very few of the Europeans living in Stock- bridge or even Boston or New York at that time had shoes of such delicate beauty. Only the party slippers of a wealthy, aristocratic woman could equal them. In fact, the Indians were criticized for their love of finery and were accused of having childlike, barbaric minds because of it. A strong enjoy- ment of leisure was another Mahican failing that they shared with the aristocrats of the period.


Monterey news

INFORMATIVE PUBLICATIONS MADE AVAILABLE BY RON KUJAWSKI Several books and a number of pamphlets have been donated to the Monterey Food Project by Extension Agent Ron Kujawski as a result of a suggestion by Monterey Energy Project member Bud Rodgers at the close of a workshop on winter storage. The books are a selection of United States Department of Agriculture yearbooks describing agricultural research, ideas for landscaping and gardening, and methods of maintaining quality in food. Written in the ’sixties, the books provide a partial history of the origins of our present food system and are replete with a telling blend of naivete, boastfulness and earnest effort. The pamphlets cover a range of planting information from house plants of all types to outdoor ornamentals, lawn care, gardens, fruits, shade trees, shrubs, and even greenhouses. All publications will be on display at Monterey Food Project Workshops and meetings. If there is demand for it, Project members will investigate possibilities of making the publications available in the Monterey Library during the summer. FARMTRAILS MAP Local produce growers and farmers may have their road- side stands and farms listed free of charge in a Southern Berk- shrre Farmtrails Map, to be published this spring by Southern Berkshire Community Action, Community Action Executive Director Thomas Rathbun announced this week. The map will indicate growers’ locations, hours and products, and will be printed on an attractive road map of South County. Farmers from any of the 17 towns of South Berkshire are eligible for listing. Donna Tunkel of Monterey is Farmtrails Project Coordi- nator. She says the map will be a big help for growers who wish to sell directly to the public from their own farms and stands. “It should also foster healthy contact between con- sumers and growers and will give growers easier access to markets while encouraging local agriculture,” Ms.


1986 Pittsfield Parks Department Scrapbook

Garner, vice president; Robert Briggs, ‘Secretary; Charles Thomp- Sei, treasurer, and John E. Callag-" han, nominating chairman. | “Crafts poe offered for children The Department of Recreation, in cooperation with Morningside School, will once again offer an af- ter-school crafts program for chil- dren at Morningside School, beginning today. “Crafts for Kids” a six-week series designed for children in grades 3 to 6. Instructor Frank Mon- terossa will teach ways of creating “junkyard crafts” from ordinary materials found around the house.” - More information about the pro- Newly elected to the board Wired, Langlois and Fred agen P ublic hearing «Is Slated on plan - Stor Park Square a, The Park Commission will hold a public hearing on a $100,000 pro- ee posal 1? ue! Park Square Mon- day at 7: .m. at Springsi = House, 874 North St. eg The commission will seek a public response to the plan presented to them by the city’s Office of Commu- nity and Economic Development the Central Berkshire Chamber of Commerce and the Pittsfield Cen- tral City Development Corp.,. ac- cording to chairman Anthony Massimiano. The plan is envisioned as a joint public and‘private project. The Cen- tral Berkshire Chamber of Com: merece’ has said it wants to raise $75,000 toward its cost. 9 Supporters have described © the plan, proposed ‘by Urban Design As- sociaties of Wyncote, Pa., as a way to spruce up the focal point of the city’s downtown. But they have also said it could serve as a «starting: point for community discussion. Changes proposed include paving os that are now crushed stone; installing brick paving around the fountain and the monuments at the east, and West Ends; planting five. or six large.maple trees and several bushes; installing period lighting, and encircling the perimeter with granite uprights and iron pipe. The plan would balance the Civil War soldier’s statue on the west side by placing the proposed Viet- nam veterans’ monument on. the east side. | (GPR 8.1966 - gram is available from the Recrea- tion Office or Morningside / community School.


OCT 6 1986 ae Joel Librizzi | Off to Italy j TV and video cassette recorder. | day, 19-member delegation gets ready _ special bus, which has a bar, TV and. : : ts ated digs diner first leg of trip to Pittstield’s sister city They were due to arrive by jet in Rome at about 11 this morn in Italy, Cava de’ Tirreni. They rode to Kennedy Airport in the ing. | Welcome, home 7/Ae| 8G Whether the Pittsfield sister- city delegation’s trip to Cava de’ Tirreni was mostly ‘business~ or mostly pleasure, it obviously served the purpose of helping to make this connection more. than a merely formal match between two distant communities. One way to improve links, from this end, would be to explore the possibility of introducing the study of Italian (on a formal or informal basis) at an early . grade level in city schools. It’s a Safe bet that a large share of the school kids in Cava de’ Tir- reni are learning English. pa WEED HARVESTER with a 7-foot cutting swath rests outside the Springside House on North Street. It is mounted on a trailer that can be converted into a weed conveyor. A county search for a home to state-funded program to clean William J. Carey smaller, 4-foot harvester is stored nearby as the city and store the equipment, used in a up Pontoosuc Lake. ~ Weed-control gear arrives in county By William J. Carey Berkshire County’s weedbusters have arrived. _ The County Commissioners an- ‘hounced at their regular meeting Tuesday that two aquatic weed har- vesters and a trailer-conveyor, the first shipment of a $224,736 cargo of weed-control equipment for the Pon- toosuc Lake, had arrived at the Springside House on North Street. The long-awaited harvesters are being kept under plastic wrap at the site until a permanent home is found.


Rand fired a two-hit shutout in the Pittsfield 13-year-old Babe Ruth League as his Quality Auto Body team tae i a 9-0 win over reenleaf Auto Body. oKren Roedell ripped three hits to ‘lead the Quality attack, while Scott Schultz added a pair of safeties. In other 13-year-old action, Alex- ander’s used a five-run third inning to down Price Chopper by a 9-4 count. Scott Ziter and Chris Sickell had two hits apiece for Alexander’s, . with: Mike Somerville gaining the pitching win. | Paul Callahan was the mound winner as Gildo’s Auto Body topped Im-Press Printing 6-2. Bob Porter i" CELA and Mark Chenail led the Gildo’s at- tack with two hits apiece. Winning pitcher Jason Goldsmith. pounded out four hits and had three RBI as Im-Press roared to a 10-4 triumph over Quality Auto Body. Matt Touhey also had four hits for the Printers with two RBI. A slugfest between Price Chopper and Greenleaf Auto Body was sus- ) pended as a 12-12 tie because of. darkness. The game will be com- leted on July 29. : Gar Traverse had three hits to lead Greenleaf, while Cliff Harris, Jim Keefner, John Beattie and Steve Wood had two hits apiece for Price Chopper. Babe Kuth’s North Adams game Continued from Page 1 did so well against the Dodgers, yielding three hits and no runs in five innings, that they offered him a contract. He had to tell them he was already signed up. aft But his hopes for fame and for- tune were tragically short-lived. Playing outfield in Adams Jater that summer, he injured his arm. ir- retrievably in an attempt to throw out a man at home plate. Recalling that injury the other day, Pasierbiak said, “Baseball was my life. It -was everything to me. . . . | cried like a baby.” Pasierbiak became foreman of the shipping de- partment at Sprague Electric Co., retiring in 1974.


Old-timers stil] tell stories not only about Ruth’s golfing and hunting but his enthu- Siastic boozing. 3 In 1941, playing golf at the Wyantenuck Country Club, he told an Eagle reporter that it was his first visit to the Berkshires. But he was wrong. The first visit had been three years earlier, to North . Adams. — m | The story of that visit is not a par- v ‘home run that he tried for and. which everyone was hoping to see. ticularly cheerful one, especially since Ruth could not connect for the It is mostly a story of faded dreams. — as | But people who were there 48 ter about it. Among those who possess memo- ries is Henry Adams, brother ‘the Sons of Italy Manager. Henry was ‘batboy’ that poster on exhibit at the Western R25 1986 Puppolo of North of John Puppolo, day, and the old years ago still like to talk about the Gateway Heritage Park is his game, and a number of stories clus- Pe Area Sports Baseball, hockey coaches highly valued souvenir. To 6/23/86 ; ® name scholarship winners SCHOLARSHIPS: The Berkshire County hockey and baseball coaches associations have named their Scholarship award winners for the 1985-86 school season. In baseball, Sean Berry of Mount Greylock Regional has been named the recipient of the Pete Cimini Scholarship award by the county baseball coaches. : Berry was a Mounties’ outfielder, The Cimini Scholarship is funded annually by the Cimini All-Star Game, which was held May 31 at Wahconah Park. Five players have been named re- Cipients of scholarships from the Berkshire County Hockey Coaches’ Association. Those awards went to Eric Hauge of Mount Greylock, Jeff Furlano of St. Joseph’s, Matt Kelly of Taconic, Mike Chapman of Pittsfield High, and Jim Pecon of Lee. All are for- wards but Kelly, who played de- fense for the Braves. ake ele _ cer League.


Rand earned the mound win in relief of Somerville. Sixth-inning RBI hits by Craig Ga- leucia and Keith Reynolds enabled Dalton to rally past the Central Berkshire League yesterday. John, Fitzgerald was the winning pitcher’ and also helped his own cause with a pair of singles. Galeucia had three hits peserdey after pounding out a pair of doubles He Saturday’s loss to South Berk- shire. . 15-year-old tourney The Pittsfield Nationals and the South Berkshire League all-stars' have advanced to third-round play: in the winners’ bracket of the: county 14- and 15- “year-old Babe | Ruth tournament. The Nationals opened their title bid with a 6-2 Saturday win over Dalton and rolled to a 12-1 second- round triumph over Central Berk- shire yesterday, while South Berk- shire, which had a first-round bye, scored a dramatic second-round win yesterday by rallying for a 9-8 triumph over the Pittsfield Ameri- cans. The Americans edged defend- ing champion Adams 1-0 Saturday in eight innings. The Nationals and South Berk- shire will meet Sunday at 1 at Dem- tars gain ‘13’ finals ing Field, with the winner of that game advancing unbeaten to the county finals July 12. In losers’ bracket games Saturday, Adams will meet Central Berkshire at War Memorial Field in Lenox and the Americans will host Dalton at Ben- edict. The winners of those two games will then meet Sunday at 1 at the home of the Adams-Central sur- vivor. South Berkshire overcame a 6-3 Aout iit eball Continued ‘from Page 30 could not get the equalizer. Jan Law picked up the pitching ‘win with a 1-inning relief stint, _ while Al Reynolds led the Southern attack with three hits. Jeff Jones had two hits and two RBI for the Americans. Jones also singled in the winning run for the Americans on Saturday in their win over Adams.


Auto Body losing pitcher gaine downe ee: Ins gain a tuale satur- to play in the Se , eos ae Friday C ounty LL tourney Opens Nays 990. Follow and look for b left out of te I The Berkshire County Little | mdervay Fi tournament will get “underway Friday when Pittsfield_ est hosts Williamstown in a first- ound game at Clapp Park. | The game is the only first-round clash scheduled ‘in the nine-team tournament, with the other seven teams drawing byes to the quar- . terfinals. The winner of the West-Williams-” town game will host defending - county champion Dalton-Hinsdale in one of four quarterfinal games on Monday. In_ other quarterfinals, - Adams will be at Great Barrington, ‘Lanesboro will play at Lee, and Pittsfield North will play at Pitts- field South. ~All games in the single-elimi- nation tournament are slated for 6 “p.m., with the semifinals slated for ‘July 15 and the finals on July 18. The tournament champion will then move on to state and potentially re- gional and World Series competi- tion. - South Little League © ~~ Jason Virgilio pitched a four-hit- ter and helped his own cause with a three-run homer as Stevenson Insur- Pittsfield South Little League. Mike Danylieko also helped Stevenson’s cause with a single and a double. Virgilio also had a ‘single and double to back winning pitcher Dan- ylieko as Stevenson’s nipped the Italian-American Club 5-4. Steve Thompson banged out three hits and Sean Albert added a single and double for the losers. | In other South action, Brian Diehl knocked in three runs with two sin- gles and a double and Sean Hurley hammered out three hits as Burger. King whipped City Savings Bank 9- 1, Jeff Zuccalo was the mound win- ner. Josh Zolkowski had two singles and a double for the Bankers.


This is the first year Springfield has com- peted in any Babe Ruth League-af- -filiated tournament. If the Pittsfield stars win tomor- row, they will play in a second- round game Sunday at 2. If they lose, they will next play in a losers’ bracket game at 2 on Monday. Closer to home, the Pittsfield Na- » tionals and Pittsfield Americans will meet tomorrow at 1 at Deming Field to determine the county 14- and 15-year-old Babe Ruth League champion. The Nationals go into the finals unbeaten and need just one - win to capture the title. The Ameri- ‘cans must sweep a double-header to win the crown. . South Little League The Pittsfield South Little League has named its all-star team for the Berkshire County tournament. The South will meet Pittsfield North in a quarterfinal game at Deming Field on Monday. ie Members of the South team in- clude Christian Anthony, Brendan Collins, Mike Danylieko, Brian Diehl, Sean Hurley, Erie Hulland, Josh Zolkowski and Steve Litster. - Other members are Kevin O’Donnell, Ryan O’Donnell, Mark Stodden, Sean Sultaire, Tony Tul- lock and Jason Virgilio. The team will be coached by Hank Sultaire and Ted Brutnell. In regular-season South League action, winning pitcher Sultaire helped his own cause with a’ pair of doubles as the Italian-American Club downed Tank Shop 7-4. Paul Morse also had two doubles for the winners, while Sean Zatorski pounded out a pair of doubles for Tank Shop. | Danylieko gained the pitching win and Virgilio hit two doubles as Ste- venson Insurance downed East Side Pizza by a 5-4 count. Ryan O’Donnell had a two-run homer for East Sidgm afte MikeM@pinini had a single and as double and Zo three runs with a pa City Savings topped vin Rayner drove 1 a trio of singles, -Q’Donnell added a doubl for Teo’s.


Police Department also posted a 15-3 win over Quality Printing and 16-i1 victory over Fire Department. Ladley and Mike Paglier pounded orth |-hitter: out four hits apiece in the game against Quality Printing, with Pag- lier and McHugh on the mound. Mickle had a double and a single for Quality. Matt Robare went 3-for-3, including a double, in the win over Fire Department. Robare also pitched for the winners, along with John Paglier and McHugh. Paul Dowd had three hits and Dave Tar- jick rapped two doubles for Fire De- partment. pay Steve Poneck and Dan Giardina split the pitching duties in Colt In- surance’s 5-4 victory over Quality Printing and 9-1 win over Fire De- partment. Giardina .also had two Joel Librizzi zeo, Brian Rilla, Gary Traversa and Jason Goldsmith; back row — Josh Tobin, Mike Filiault, Chris Sinopoli, Bill Quadrozzi, head coach Damian Giardina; Matt Touhey, J.R. Rand and Scott Ziter. Assistant coaches Ed Barzottini and Tim Brennan were absent when the picture was taken. J a. ae 1} : to capture the county crown, while the Americans must sweep a double-header to eliminated the Na- tionals and claim the title. If the Americans win the first game, a decisive second game would be played 20 minutes later, also at Deming Field. The county champion will then move on to play | | ’ ounty Ruth finals in the Western State 14- and 15-year- old tournament beginning July 19 at Leominster. : Besides-earning a berth in the county finals, the Americans last night gained revenge for a second- round loss suffered at the hands of South Berkshire 10 days earlier. Coco, who is now 3-0 in the tourna-. ment, walked just three and struck out 15 in hurling the Pittsfield team to victory, while Jones’s home run snapped a 3-3 tie and gave the Americans the lead to stay in the fourth.


Trophies will be awarded to the first three top finishers in each category. © Cites rules Przedpelski said that only wooden, U-shaped toboggans will be permitted, that the proper wax should be applied, according to snow and weather conditions and that people participating should wear heavily padded clothing. To- boggans will be available for loan, he said. 2 Entry forms are available at the Department of Recreation office at 874 North St. and will be available on Sunday at the park from 11 to noon. Przedpelski said applicants under 18 years of age must have a oarent’s signature on the entry blank. There is no charge to enter this event. Additional information may be ob- tained by contacting Przedpelski at a : Fourteen to participate ary a a 10—The Berkshire Eagle, Friday, J anuary 17, 1986 in carnival queen contest The annual Winter Carnival - queen’s contest will begin this eve- -ning when the 14 queen contestants and their mothers are entertained at a dinner at the Stanley Club to kick off the contest. The contest is sponsored by the Pittsfield Winter Sports Committee Inc., as part of its 4ist annual Winter Carnival. Each contestant must sell a mini- mum of 1,000 Winter Carnival but- tons to become eligible to compete for the title of Winter Carnival queen and lady-in-waiting. The queen and lady-in-waiting will be se- lected at the queen’s coronation ball Feb. 14 at the Itam Lodge. A panel of three judges will make their se- lection based on poise, appearance, personality, expression and under- standing of the carnival activities. The sale. of buttons is a separate contest and has no bearing on the . judging of the queen or lady-in-wait- ing. A special award will be pre- sented to the contestant selling the most buttons by the Winter Sports Committee.


Socialism, Its Economic Aspect: I. The socialistic platform II. The theory explained III. The theory applied

The collectivism advo- cated in these programmes is often limited to those industries where capital has already become sufficient- ly centralized to manifest the tyranny of monopoly and where the centralization is sufficiently organized to make the transfer to public control an affair of mere- ly passing a law, signing a paper and paying a price. We are not considering here the advantages or dis- advantages of certain municipal ownerships, as of water, lighting and passenger transport; or of certain national ownerships, as of railways, telegraph lines, etc. We are occupied solely with the question of ul- timate complete centralization, the abolition of pri- vate capital and the common ownership of all the means and instruments of production. The tenden- cy of the broad socialistic movement is to this, as to an ideal, a goal. We are told that it is only by an Digitized by Google 6 Socialism: Its Economic Aspect. ultimate reconstruction of society upon the basis of common ownership that all men will be enabled to receive a wage commensurate with their labor, a compensation due to them for the benefit which by their labor they bestow upon the community. It is seriously important, therefore, to understand at the beginning and to bear constantly in mind that in dealing with the collectivist theory we are dealing with a political theory of labor and not with a theory of idleness, anarchy, nihilism, dynamite or free plunder. The fundamental In face of this latest scheme for the principle. amelioration of the condition of labor, all the old systems for the reconstruction of so- ciety, the systems of St. Simon, of Fourier, etc., have passed into the history of theory. The new system itself is far from being clear, whether as to the de- tails of method or of practically distributed results.


Though socialists feel that just now they cannot get this majority for the estab- lishment of the social state, yet they are sanguine of ultimate success. They rely upon the enemy as their best ally in the destruction of the enemy. Under the conditions of industry which have been brought about by machinery and rapid transport, they are waiting for the competitive system to run its course. Within fifty years, the old-time conditions — under which the tradesman owned his lot, his shop, his tools and the fruit of his labor, under which he found his own market and regulated supply to de- mand — have practically disappeared. Small pro- prietorships of peasant, mechanic, merchant, have given way to huge agricultural, industrial and mer- cantile capitalizations. The process goes on with Digitized by UjOOQie 8 Socialism: Its Economic Aspect. giant strides. To use the expression of Karl Marx, “one capitalist kills many.” The socialist, then, is waiting for large capitals to absorb the smaller. He will thus find created for him a few millionaires on the one hand and a race of wage-earners on the other. The essential preparatory work will be done for him (as he could not do it himself) by the trusts and monopolies, the inevitable outcome of competi- tion. As the capitalists by absorption grow fewer, the workers must increase in numbers, and they must also increase in misery, since they can have nothing to say about production, market or price. This development must go on until the workers re- volt by using the legal means of suffrage which has been put into their hands. But when they revolt, it will be as a united, organized, disciplined body, into which they shall have been formed by the very methods of the capitalist system. Then, as capital- ists expropriated the many for the benefit of the few, the many will turn around and expropriate the few for the benefit of all.


The indi- vidual capitalist is not blamed for this. He is not accused of personally robbing the wage earner of the surplus value of hiswork. He is recognized as being the fortunate one in what is called the “anarchy" of , Google Socialism: Its Economic Aspect . 11 competition, an anarchy upheld by civil statute ; and so long as he wishes to compete he must abstract as much as he can from the fruit of labor. It is the system, then, which has to be changed. The root has to be dug up. Competition must be eliminated and in its place there must be substituted, also by law, a collective ownership in which there will be no wage earners and no capitalists as persons ade- quately distinct. All must be producers for their own benefit in the benefit of all. Once more, we must be on our guard A false notion. ’ b against a prevalent vague notion that the main tenet of the actual socialism, collectivism, is the periodical dividing up and redistribution of all properties, so as to preserve equality of possessions amongst the citizens. Whatever may have been the meaning of some old forms of communism, the so- cialism of to-day does not contemplate this at all. It aims simply at common ownership of all the means of production, to the end that each one may receive a wage, a compensation due to him for the labor which he has expended upon the common produc- tion. Still further, we must know that the Methods. socialistic system does not propose to dispossess the capitalist brutally, whilst depriving him of the privilege of drawing an interest on his capital or his plant. It will, of course, prohibit all private industry for profit, and thus all instruments, and machinery, as private capital, will become use- less.


Politics would be a thing of the past, just as rival show rooms and warehouses and those obsolete terms, wholesale and retail. The interest of Where, then, would the interest of the the individual, individual be supposed to come in? In this simply, as we have stated, that every man would be supposed to obtain a wage that would be consid- ered to represent the full value of his labor. And this leads us to speak of what we placed as a second requisite in the modern civilized state, namely, some approximately fixed and determinable unit measure of value for the purposes of exchange. In the new state there could be no No more money. real money, as we understand the term. With us real money is both measure of value and medium of exchange. In the new state the two func- tions of money would have to be distributed. They could not be combined in the same article or instru- ment. As each member of the community would be supposed to be remunerated according to his contri- bution in labor to the general store or service, labor itself , in some way or other, would necessarily have to be the measure of value. The medium of exchange, then, since the labor or the product could not be passed around, would needs have to be a certificate Digitized by Google 18 Socialism; Its Economic Aspect. of labor contributed. This certificate could not be in the form of gold or silver or anything which might have its own value, as a commodity, over and above the labor represented. In the socialistic state, then, the measure of value would be the labor contributed ; and the certificate of labor would be the medium for the purchase of the common produce and the utiliza- tion of the common service.


The system was certainly very sim- ple. Its simplicity brought it adherents, especially among the indolent. The simple system helped to cre- ate the party, and we see it still practically set forth to-day in the unwise demands of some local labor organizations. But, Marx and other leading collect- ivists of his day found themselves obliged to recede from too much insistence upon the time measure for the value of the labor hour. Minimum produc If we take the thin g in reason, and in tlon • its entirety — as we must always do when discussing a scheme — we have to see that scrip cer- tificates for hours of labor cannot possibly have a purchasing power beyond amount and value pro- duced. A labor hour can give purchasing power to a scrip only by reason of some definite amount pro- duced in the hour of labor. If a thing has not been produced it cannot be purchased. Now, there are no two men whose hour of labor can be counted upon to give exactly the same results. Neither is the la- bor hour of the same person always uniformly pro- ductive. Thus the value of the scrip to have any definite purchasing power must be measured by the minimum production. It stands to reason, then, that each one will produce his minimum, seeing that he can receive no more for the scrip that testifies to his labor. We cannot conceive of the long continuance of a state where every citizen is doing as little as he possibly can, to the end that he may not be imposed upon by the idleness of all the other citizens. Digitized by Google Socialism: Its Economic Aspect. 2 1 to amount produced The other > as We have said > ®f the value i making the hour of labor the measure of value is to take account of what is produced.


You cannot do it. Half the world believes that a working equivalent cannot be found between two pure metals, silver and gold. How shall it be found between a million, between fifty million arti- Digitized by Google Socialism: Its Economic Aspect . 2$ cles produced, between all the various kinds of labor results contributing to their final production? What are the precise relative values of the labor hour em- ployed in weeding a potato patch and the labor hour devoted to sewing on glove buttons? How many dozen glove buttons will balance an acre of potatoes? If you are a socialist and do not wish to commit yourself to paying for mere time, independently of what is done, you will be obliged to establish this little ratio, together with a million more. You will, besides, be obliged to re-establish the ratios everyday according to the fluctuating value put upon anything and everything by the changing tastes of the com- munity. Wk0 will have first But ^ US 8u PP ose that you have SUC- chok * T ceeded in laying down a few ratios be- tween commodities or various kinds of public ser- vice, say between street cleaning, making ice cream, playing the bass drum and pulling teeth. The ratios could not be established with anything like the ex- actness of the ratio that can be established between silver and gold. But let us suppose that you have succeeded in working out the six ratios, showing the value of each of these kinds of labor hour in terms of each of the others. How are you going to decide who is to have the privilege of applying himself to the most lucrative kind of labor? Who shall be obliged to take the labor that is less remunerated, even whilst he is willing and anxious and competent to do the better rewarded labor?


Will it select according to previous examinations in schools of art and letters? Knowledge of arts and letters is not a criterion of certain very important qualifications which should be looked for in those to whom the lives of the community are to be entrusted. There are certain moral and physical qualities which Digitized by v^-ooQie 26 Socialism: Its Economic Aspect. can exhibit themselves only in the course of practice, ami which — any physician will attest it — go far to make up the necessary equipment of the medical practitioner who is to be of real value to the com- munity. These things cannot be foreseen by and committee. Hence, no committee can make a fit se- lection of subjects for education in medicine. We shall, nevertheless, suppose that the com- mittee does make a selection of the three hundred who are to pursue the medical studies. As we have said, these students will have to receive their salary or wages for study. What guarantee can we have that they will really fit themselves for the best pub- lic service? For, the practice of medicine will have to be a public service, since there can be no compe- tition. No more can be done than to establish a min- imum percentage which one must reach in order to be accepted as the public servant. And in the doing of this the entire medical profession is reduced to a minimum of excellence. For, nine-tenths of those who, under the system of private competition, would have labored for a maximum of excellence, will, un- der the new system, labor only for the minimum which is demanded for the earning of the daily wage in the public service — the only thing they can aspire to. In a word, the entire profession is degraded, and the entire community is put at the mercy of the half-educated charlatans.


Drugs, medicines, under the new system, will have to be as free as water. The members of the community, on labor hour certif- icates, cannot be expected to lay by enough to cover the expenses of a long illness. Everything for the Digitized by v^-ooQie Socialism: Its Economic Aspect . 27 infirm and incapacitated will have to be done by pub- lic hospital service. But where nurses and doctors and all persons entrusted with the health of the citi- zens are qualified for their service by a minimum examination, we may well pity the community that is subjected to the collusion of such servants whose wages are independent of the efficiency of their service. And all this is only a meagre outline of but one illus- tration taken at random from a hundred thousand. wa^es of the We ma y remark here that it is a nec- tnempioyed. essary consequence of the socialistic scheme that every person who is at least willing to work must be entitled to the labor wage. Hence it must be a socially inevitable fact that at all times there shall be many who shall receive the labor wage whilst doing no work. For it is impossible that all persons in the same locality shall always be produc- ing. Yet such persons are fully entitled to the labor wage, for the principle of equality demands that it be not arbitrarily given to one in preference to another. If, however, actual labor should be counted a necessary condition for the receipt of the wage, then those for whom there would be nothing to do in a locality would have to be transported at public expense to another locality where labor would be possible. Thus there would be an endless shifting of popula- tions ; there would be a continual breaking up of families — a vital blow given to one of the funda- mentals of human liberty.