The Military Chaplains' Review

He received his seminary training at Wesley The- ological Seminary and has subsequently received advanced degrees in counseling and business administration. He was chief of the Leader- ship/Management Division at the Chaplain School prior to his present assignment. training. They seemed to think that those with the most rank got all of the TDY and used all the training funds. The concerned supervisor realized the importance of the professional update and conferred with a major command chaplain. Shortly afterward a pronouncement was made: Every chaplain will be entitled to a minimum of one TDY each year. Initially the decision was applauded by most chaplains; but because the ruling had no connection with actual need, it proved to be a dreadful mistake which had to be retracted and which cost the originators considerable loss of credibility. Example No. 2: Rolling Retreats While in Germany I experienced a high degree of success with "roll- ing retreats." Our brigade sponsored eight or more each year, and we always had an overflow registration and waiting list. The retreats were popular spiritual journeys for both single service members and families. Whether learning of the atrocities of Hitler in Dachau, or visiting the shrine of Martin Luther at Coburg, the impact on the troops was significant. The program was so well respected that the USAREUR Chaplain printed some of the after-action reports in a booklet called, "Rolling Retreats." Almost a year after the booklet was distributed, I received a call from another chaplain who was obviously frustrated. With con- siderable anguish, he described the traumatic failure of his attempt to duplicate the rolling retreat program. He had some great ideas but the first two retreats were not well received and were canceled at a signif- icant loss of money to the chapel budget. The idea which seemed so bright in the beginning, was cruelly snuffed out.


The Military Chaplains' Review

In each of these cases there is a common error which underlies the failure or weakness of the program. Had one ingredient been added, the idea may never have been proposed, or maybe it would have been engineered in a way which insured a higher probability of success. Whenever we attempt to promote good ideas, we are dealing with probabilities. Our task is to increase the odds for achievement. In this way we maintain our credibility, provide meaningful ministry for soldiers and their families, and enhance support for ministry. Why the failures in the chaplain TDY policy, retreat program, Easter Sunrise Service and Creative Ministries Workshop? In each case the chaplain who originated the idea failed to ascertain whether or not the organization could support it. This leads me to my basic hypothesis: The good ideas of chaplains often turn into nightmares because they fail to test for organizational support prior to moving into the implementation stage. In organization effectiveness terms, the chaplains failed to utilize a systems approach. Systems Approach Simply stated, a systems approach means that the originator of an idea runs the idea through a number of "acid tests" before he takes it to the implementation stage. It means getting ready, aiming, and firing, in that order. The getting ready and aiming require some careful, and often tedious, planning which some originators may try to skip. What are these "acid tests?" Pure systems theory states five elements which must be consid- ered before an idea becomes a proposal. These elements are mission, technology, personnel, structure and environment. Adapting this con- cept, I want to suggest the following tests: Funding, Personnel, Logis- tics, Technology and Environment. Keep in mind that an idea is a product of a dream, a hunch, a clue, a suggestion or a past experience.


The Military Chaplains' Review

Secondly, TDY target was in short supply, and no more was obtainable from any source during the last nine months of the fiscal year. Money was just not available to support ongoing travel and training requirements for 24 chaplains, 32 chaplain assistants and 3 civilians. To implement the staff chaplain's idea was impossible. Although the staff chaplain was convinced that the funds could be obtained since he had already announced his policy, unfortunately, even he could not come up with the TDY target to support his idea. As a result, the proposal was abandoned six months after it was announced. In this case the idea could have passed several of the tests with reasonable success. The personnel test could have been passed, the logistics test could have been passed, the technology requirements were non-existent, and the chaplain environment was generally sup- portive of the idea even though the comptroller later raised a few questions. However, the idea could not pass the funds test. Had the staff chaplain run his idea through the five tests prior to implement- ing it, the shortfall of money would have become obvious rather quickly, and the idea might have been revised or scrapped at that point. Since the decision was made in relative isolation, the tests were not applied, and the idea failed. Example No. 2 Retreat Revisited The mistakes made in the case of the rolling retreats are among the most common programming errors made by chaplains. The chaplain attempting to implement the idea was bright and dedicated, and he was devoted to the troops. In addition, the chaplain had all the money he needed to run the program. He was only limited by his own initiative, and as we will see, by a couple of other less obvious factors. The retreat idea would have easily passed the money test.


The Military Chaplains' Review

There was neither the logisti- cal capability, the environmental support, nor the personnel to tackle such an idealistic project. Two years later the same good idea was given the tests, and the final proposal was designed in a practical manner. A magnificent sunrise service was held on the same hill and in conjunction with the ministers of the civilian community. Example No. 4 Creative Ministry Workshop The final example, was a Creative Ministries Workshop jointly spon- sored by the chaplains of Fort Sill, Fort Bliss, Fort Carson and the US Army Chaplain Board. There was sufficient logistical support, and no problems with funding since the installations had co-sponsored the program with a grant from the Chaplain Board. A superb planning task force from all of the sponsoring agencies met to provide the personnel support, and there were more people requesting registration than there were spaces. Finally, there were no issues around technology. However, no one seriously considered the environmental issues. The military environment was not ready for chaplains to deal publicly with such issues and methodologies as homosexuality and hypnosis. When it was known that the guest speaker for "Ministry to the Homosexual Community" was a homosexual, the conference was canceled. Although no one sponsoring the conference was advocating homosexuality or the use of hypnosis, the purpose of the conference was lost in the uproar regarding these volatile issues. A good idea had become a nightmare because the content of the seminar ran counter to the prevailing sentiments, values, beliefs, policies and regulations. Conclusion In the military we use the words coordination, staffing and planning regularly. We are encouraged to take our ideas out of our own little worlds and to subject them to a head-on examination by the systems which will support or fail to support them. The extent to which we "get ready" and "aim," before we "fire" often means the difference between an idea which becomes a nightmare or an idea which becomes a truly significant experience for ministry. 13 The One Minute Manager is an Androgynous Manager Kenneth H.


The Military Chaplains' Review

Sargent is a consultant and management trainer in orga- nization development, managerial effectiveness, performance man- agement and affirmative action. She is the author of many articles and books, including The Androgynous Manager. 14 As the man sat and listened to these "nice" people answer the same question, he heard, "I'm a democratic manager." "Participa- tive." "Supportive." "Considerate." "Humanistic." He heard the pride in their voices and their interest in people. But he was disturbed. It was as though most managers in the world primarily were interested in either results or people. The managers who were interested in results often seemed to be labeled "autocratic," while the managers interested in people were often labeled "democratic." The young man thought each of the managers - the "tough" autocrat and the "nice" democrat - was only partially effective. "It's like being half a manager," he thought. He returned home tired and discouraged. Unfortunately, we, too, are discouraged. While there has been some progress in recognizing the importance of both results and people, most managers still act as half a manager-either autocratic or democratic, directive or supportive, rational or emotional. And to make matters worse, these extremes are often based on gender stereotypes. Masculinity traditionally has been associated with a task-ori- ented, directive approach that values rational problem solving. Femi- ninity, on the other hand, has been characterized as a people- oriented, supportive approach that values sharing feelings and caring for others. In the home, for example, fathers have been thought of as providers and disciplinarians, while mothers have been labeled as helpers and nurturers. Our cultural norms even seem to have been divided into organi- zation norms (male) and family norms (female). Men have been taught to value task-oriented achieving and have been socialized to fill the needs of the organization. Women have been taught to be expressive.


The Military Chaplains' Review

Assert the right to work for self-fulfillment, rather than to play the role of provider. 10. Listen empathically and actively without feeling responsible for problem solving. 1 1 . Touch and be close to both men and women. Today, compliance can not be produced through threats (a "don't do as I do — do as I say" style) because power is no longer centralized in a few hands but is disbursed throughout organizations. Managing by the "Golden Rule" (whoever has the gold, makes the rules) eventually produces resistance and stifles creativity. The number-one character- istic of high-performance managers is to hold high standards for themselves and others. This is the heart of behavior modeling. Thus, the effective manager today teaches behaviors through modeling, and that is why it is so critical for managers to have a repertoire, a range of both masculine and feminine behaviors. If we are going to recognize that productivity comes through people, the "whole" manager will need to express and accept emo- tions, nurture and support colleagues and subordinates, and promote interactions between bosses and subordinates and between leaders and members of work teams. These behaviors are desirable, not only for their own sake, but because they can increase organizational effec- tiveness and efficiency. Since many of these behaviors traditionally have been regarded as feminine, and therefore not been rewarded in the marketplace, both male and female managers have avoided them. Indeed, managers have been expected to be aggressive, rational, autonomous, task-oriented and tough-minded. The new style does not call for abandoning traditional masculine behaviors; it calls for blending them with feminine behaviors. For example, men would not give up the concern for power but would learn to balance it with a concern for people. That means broadening their range of responses in affiliation, trust, openness, intuition and the expression of feelings.


The Military Chaplains' Review

Be able to intellectualize and generalize. 7. Deal directly with anger and blame, thereby rejecting feelings of suffering and victimization; be invulnerable to destructive feedback. 17 8. Talk and cry at the same time. 9. Respond directly with "I" statements rather than "you" statements. 10. Be analytical and systematic and share abstract models. 1 1 . Take more risks with power. to abandon their concern for relationships and would supplement it with an increased focus on outcome. They would become more asser- tive, depersonalize some situations and, hence, use more instrumen- tal behavior, share their competition and generally increase their behavioral repertoire for managing conflict and dealing with power. The term androgynous manager* describes this new management mode encouraging a mix of masculinity and femininity. Andro and gyne are the Greek roots for male and female. The androgynous manager is an archetype that represents the coming together of male- ness and femaleness. The androgynous manager is both dominant and yielding, combining independence with spontaneity, and playful- ness, nurturance and competence with compassion. An androgynous manager is well developed in both the right brain (creative skills such as intuition, fantasy and imagination) and the left brain (intellectual skills such as linear, abstract, logical and deductive thinking). In essence, the effective manager is someone with both leader- ship skills and supporting and helping behaviors. This blend is exactly what sets the one minute manager apart from other managers. As the young man learned, the one minute manager has three secrets: He or she sets goals, praises and reprimands performance. This is the androgynous blend. "One minute goal setting," the first secret of the one minute manager, starts the whole management process. Without people knowing what they are being asked to do (accountability) and what good behavior should be (performance standards), they cannot be expected to achieve excellence. The traditional masculine approach to management took that into account.


The Military Chaplains' Review

Tell them that this is unlike them and you don't intend to let them get away with it because they are better than that. While the first three parts of the reprimand are not difficult for most masculine approach managers, the last step, praising, is very hard. They can't understand why they would do that. So the last and probably the most important part of the reprimand, the praising, is more in the realm of the feminine stereotype. To become one minute managers, people have to behave androgynously. They must be able to use the best of both worlds: the masculine task-oriented, directive approach and the feminine people- oriented, supportive approach. Given the popularity of books on the subject, we believe the androgynous manager of the future is upon us now. 19 Leadership Styles and Chaplain Applications CH (MAJ) John K. Stake The chaplain stood near the rear of the formation and waited for the new commander of the headquarters company to complete his tirade. Angry and frustrated by the failure of the company to properly exe- cute a physical exercise called the lunger, the commander threatened the unit with extra repetitions of the exercise. "You were shown once how to do this. Now do it right, or you'll stay here until you do!" His voice quavered with anger as he returned control of the formation to the platoon sergeant. Tension and resentment gripped the people of the headquarters company. The chaplain knew he should speak to the commander, but what should he say? Leadership and the Chaplain Although the chaplain does not command, he advises the commander and staff on the ethical and moral quality of leadership, and he exercises operational supervision and control within the chaplain section. 1 This article addresses the chaplain's contributions to leadership and presents three leadership models which can be readily grasped and easily applied.


The Military Chaplains' Review

Given this set of variables, the leader in this situation probably will achieve the greatest success by tapping the information and opin- ions of his subordinates in a group setting, in which he retains the right to make the final decision. A leader can learn to assess a situa- tion's variables in this way and reach a rational conclusion regarding the nature and extent of participation. Myth II: Managers are paid to make decisions and should make them This myth prevails in predominantly autocratic organizations. Man- agers in this organizational culture believe that it is their duty to make decisions alone. Allowing their subordinates to contribute to the analysis or to participate in the final conclusion is somehow a shirking of responsibility, a weakness, a diminishing of authority. Traditional manufacturing organizations with strong plant managers and companies still led by their entrepreneur founders typically fall in this category. I would argue that in many — but certainly not all — situations, the manager who does not involve others in the decision-making process may be shirking his or her responsibility to ensure successful resolution. The two ingredients necessary for the successful resolu- tion of most situations are the quality of the decision and the com- mitment of the implementors. Quality involves the selection of the best available alternative. Commitment involves the active support, rather than mere compliance, on the part of those who will carry out the decision. While both of these factors are not critical in all situa- tions, they certainly need to be considered. In the organization structure decision described under Myth I, both the quality of the alternative selected and the commitment of 30 those who have to work within the structure are essential. In a deci- sion concerning the establishment of a travel expense reporting sys- tem, the quality of the system most likely would be important.


Moving around : partnership at work in dance on tour

For the public to expe- rience the range and vitality of the art form, live dance performance is es- sential. We can't turn on the radio or television to a dance station or borrow a shelf of dance classics from most local libraries. Even the best dance films and television programs are no substitute for the live experience. Dance On Tour is a living lending library of dance. The universality of dance and the brilliance of our dance artists and forms have given American dance unmatched prominence. No other country sur- passes us in the excellence, vitality and range of our dance — we produce nothing better. Dance is among this country's most successful exports; indeed, the work of our dance artists is often better known abroad than at home. This is ironic, since dance in this country has been an extraordinarily fertile art: the devel- opment of the art form, the creation of new works, and the variety of forms, styles and traditions that make up the American dance landscape have no parallel. Touring dance is a moving canvas, a record and history of our time enlivened by the engagement of artists with audiences and communities. While touring in the United States has been the economic lifeblood of most dance companies, it is fraught with risk. Some things have improved in the decades since pioneer dancers — Anna Pavlova, Isadora Duncan, Ruth St. Denis, Ted Shawn and Katherine Dunham — crisscrossed this land on America's rail- roads to bring an appreciation for dance to millions. In those days dancers encountered ignorance and prejudice and were exhausted from grueling tour schedules and uncertain pay days. By and large, theaters were filthy and floors unsuitable for dancing, leading to frequent and serious injuries that had no time to heal. The most pleasurable stops were those hosted by enlightened and excited presenters.


The dozen profiles that follow illustrate the exciting varieties and possibilities for artists and communities that have been helped through the Arts Endowment's Dance On Tour program. Some artists crave unfettered. time in a theater to create and rehearse work to be presented later, as in the Trisha Brown Company profile. The Liz Lerman/Dance Exchange and Urban Bush Women profiles illustrate interplay with the community and with non-tradi- tional settings involving populations at risk — children, the incarcerated, caregivers, the aged and infirm — engaged in dance processes that are life- affirming and often healing. Local artists, often experiencing a sense of iso- lation in their communities, are given opportunities to study and perform with fellow artists from other communities, sharing ideas and exploring new av- enues for artistic growth as in the Mark Dendy profile. We see through all these stories that there is no end of possibilities for artists, presenters and communities to engage with each other in ways that nourish and stimulate creativity. All this takes wise planning, responsive management, an entrepreneurial spirit and the resources equal to the real costs involved. That is why subsidy is imperative. The National Endowment for the Arts recognized long ago that federal subsidy was needed to bring the best dance of all kinds to people living in all parts of the country. The profiles in this book attest to the creativity and energy and innovation that have made our dance artists and companies the envy of the world. Through Dance On Tour, the art and artists are "moving around," engaging Americans in all walks of life and in many different ways. The twelve projects you read about here only hint at the almost limitless possibilities when creative artists and equally creative presenters have the resources available to engage, to enlighten and to inspire communities.


Drill team?' These people were called to meetings; they had no idea why. We'd show them videos, explain what services a dance company could provide in their com- munity." On the second visit, the residency design team planned specific activities. They brought along Grannan, a gifted dance teacher in his own right. Brad- ley, herself a former dancer, brought to the planning process her under- standing of what the company could conceivably accomplish in a single day. The residency design team struc- tured the dancers' time, dividing the company into small platoons so more territory could be covered simulta- neously. A community volunteer trav- eled with each small group. When they weren't teaching or performing, they were on the road; Easter Day was spent covering the 216 miles from Taos to Farmington; the following Sunday they drove 378 miles from Farmington to Silver City. The visiting performers gave gener- ously of their time and energy, and left feeling that they, too, had been edu- cated. New Mexico is a place people are curious about and eager to visit. "That factor means a company can enjoy their time here even though we work them to the bone," laughs Rosenkranz. The Eugene Ballet performed Chil- dren of the Raven, a signature piece in their repertory. The dance is based on legends of people native to the Pacific Northwest coast. Among the residency 15 Eugene Ballet Company New Mexico Arts Division Various Presenters sites were several Native American communities. The Eugene contingent included a Native American storyteller who shared his knowledge, most of it completely unfamiliar to the New Mexicans, at workshops in schools and communities. But when they contacted the Navajo Teen Life Center, their li- aison said she really wanted to explore classical and contemporary works. "The kids out there," says Rosenkranz, "have no exposure to classical and contemporary forms." The New Mexico project allowed Eugene Ballet members to interact with people from other cultures.


The work explores the many ways people intimidate and oppress one another — racially, economically and in terms of gender and sexual orientation. In the course of the piece, several of the male dancers bare their bodies as well as their souls. The project premiered at two well-attended performances at the recently renovated Blackstone Theater. An openly gay African-American artist, native to Houston with Creole roots, Rousseve thrived in Chicago. Collaborat- ing with White, Shirley Mordine (artistic director at the Dance Center), and Susan Lipman (executive director of Performing Arts Chicago), Rousseve was able, he said, to reach out to a vast and various group of people. "They really listened to what we were telling them about the piece and how it should be marketed — that its issues are political as well as spiritual." Sue Latham, Rousseve's producer in New York, did the planning in tight com- munication with Chicago. Julie Simpson, a Chicago manager, was put in charge of day-to-day operations. Woodie White made extraordinary efforts to build un- derstanding of the potentially controver- sial piece and to build audiences. He ar- ranged outreach events at the Harold Washington Library in Chicago's inner city, at a gay community center and at various churches. Master classes were held in the community. One of Rousseve's dancers, Aziza, taught a combination of hip-hop and modern dance technique three days a week for four weeks, to high- school-age kids from public housing who wanted to be there. "Aziza lives in Harlem," says Rousseve, "and African- American pride is a big part of her per- sonal agenda." He continues, "The bottom line, artis- tically speaking? The Chicago residency had a profound effect on the piece. You can't focus in your home town the way you can in another city.


When you're out- of-town you have the dancers' undivided attention for four weeks; you can rehearse eight hours a day instead of two. They don't have to teach or go to work as waitresses. I'm convinced that the piece, [co-commissioned by the Walker Art Cen- ter in Minneapolis] which was performed in the Next Wave Festival at the Brook- lyn Academy of Music in mid-November would not have been such a success without Chicago. To get it up on stage and see what it looked like made a pro- found difference." "What at first appeared as overwhelm- ing," says Rousseve, "became, by the end, a great system. It was the first time that community outreach became really ful- 18 David Rousseve/Reality Arts Midwest Dance Center of Columbia College Chicago filling for us. Audiences knew what to expect when they came. It even was more valuable for me than for the audience. We decided to reach out to church-going African-American people and have 'informances/ and to ask them what they saw." It was the first time, says Rousseve, that "any producer out-of-town has had the time, money and resources to make us the centerpiece of a lot of different things. We recruited six dancers locally; Woodie took a lot of time finding them. They had the ability to invest a lot of time and energy in the piece. And my dancers were completely giving; we kept saying 'Can we do more? You're taking us to an African-American cul- tural center in the middle of the projects? Great!!' The outreach was a pleasure rather than a chore." For the final performances, about 1,000 people a night filled the Black- stone Theater: gay, straight, young, old, black, white, the most diverse audience Rousseve had ever seen for experimen- tal work.


In both cases, an important ob- jective was audience development. "When I came to the North Carolina Arts Council [as touring and presenting director] in 1989," says Pamela Martin Green, "the cultural diversity work was just getting going. I decided to try and do something with a black dance com- pany that would address communities of color. A lot of the mainstream present- ers were complaining about not being able to get black folks in to see their perfor- mances. My idea was to get the two together to satisfy each other's needs — to partner the presenters with local com- munity organizations of color. "We did the Robinson project in six locations — Asheville, Winston-Salem, Greensboro, Charlette, Chapel Hill and Pembroke — in four weeks. I think it was incredible for the communities, and very, very hard for the Cleo Parker Robinson Dance Ensemble. I don't know of another company that would have been willing to do what they did." What they did was appear in six com- munities, performing repertory including Spiritual Suite, a contemporary work to gospel music. For this piece, they incor- porated local dancers in each place. "We'd audition in each city, rehearse and do a costumed performance — all in four days," laughed Robinson. In a couple of locales, they recruited and rehearsed live gospel choirs as well. The company also offered master classes and lecture dem- onstrations at each site. "We spent a lot of our money on plan- ning. We brought Cleo in from Denver three times before the residency actually took place," says Green. "I required all the partners to attend. It gave a sense of unity to the tour. Everybody got to know each other. The state arts council created a promotional package to go along with the tour: a poster, a public service an- nouncement.


"And after that, the company explained how they had developed similar material into their own performance." Sixty minutes later, at the climax of an event that grew to feel like a "revival meeting," says Garcia, the capacity au- dience of 360 white, black and Hispanic students jumped to their feet and cheered. The idea that art can be created from personal experience — that it need not be intellectually distant or inapproach- able— is a central tenet of Urban Bush Women's philosophy, a philosophy the company has been able to pass on all over the country through programs funded in part by Dance On Tour. In performance pieces that blend stories, games, songs and memories, artistic director Jawole Willa Jo Zollar ada- mantly affirms her own African-Ameri- can heritage, even as she and her pre- dominantly female company serve as role models for African-American kids. "They are very interested in being role models, in showing kids that being an artist or dancer is something admirable and something to aspire to," says Chris Cowden, the executive director of the Center for Women & Their Work, the group's Austin presenter. "That's very central to what they do, so that makes their appearance in schools a very good fit." And a good fit for Women & Their Work, too, an organization whose mis- sion is to encourage "art as a profes- sion"— especially for women. Cowden, who first presented Urban Bush Women in 1989, brought the group back as the centerpiece of "Be- yond Borders," a series designed to showcase a wide range of culturally defined aesthetics. Accordingly, Cowden and her racially diverse board made special efforts to reach out to the African-American community in Aus- tin, which makes up approximately 12% of the city's half-million population. "You have to market differently to different communities," explains Cowden, who says she has learned a lot about attracting black audiences through years of building cross-cultural alliances.


"It's important to go through churches, through social groups, sorori- ties and fraternities — which have a dif- ferent meaning in the black community than they do in the white community." Black-oriented media can play an im- portant role too, she says. Zollar, for in- stance, was interviewed on the local Af- rican-American radio station, and ad- vertisements were placed in the black newspaper and other media that di- 24 Urban Bush Women Mid-America Arts Alliance Center for Women & Their Work rectly served the African-American population. The connections paid off. "The phone started ringing on Mon- day and we got 500 calls that week," says Cowden, whose small office staff was unprepared for the onslaught. With ticket revenue from two sold-out per- formances, a grant of $3,160 from Dance On Tour through the Mid- America Arts Alliance and additional funds from the National Performance Network, the National Endowment for the Arts and the City of Austin, Women & Their Work was able to break even on its budget of $15,238. "To call it a financial success would be kind of misleading," says Cowden with a chuckle, explaining that substan- tial in-kind donations and administra- tive costs are not included in this fig- ure. "But we always look at the impact on Austin as the measure of success." For that, one must look again at Johnston High School which includes a sizeable African-American popula- tion. Except for the 400 students who attend the magnet Liberal Arts Acad- emy housed there, the majority of the school's 1,700 pupils come from single- parent homes in two of the poorest areas in Austin. More than half of the students at Urban Bush Women's lec- ture-demonstration were black, clearly hungry for the rare opportunity to wit- ness their heritage being explored and validated. "We're seven strong women and one man, we wear our hair natural, we talk Urban Bush Women in Heat.


Making them in a cramped studio and seeing them performed on stage for the first time only days before a pre- miere had become unacceptable. Work looks different from the 15th row of an auditorium, she knows, than it does when you're right on top of it. But theaters are expensive to open and run. As well, Brown and her dancers were eager to open a school through which they could disseminate her technical innovations. They had re- ceived an Arts Endowment Challenge grant to explore some options. "We figured there had to be presenters with facilities but without the money for residencies of at least four weeks," commented Brown's executive direc- tor, Susan Fait-Meyers. The well-equipped, 1,453-seat Flynn Theatre in downtown Burlington had been unused during July and August every year; during the short northern Vermont summer, people spend as much time outdoors as possible. The Flynn's director of programming, Philip Bither, wanted to keep the building in use without extending the performance season or his budget. He had met Fait-Meyers in the early developmental days of the Dance On Tour program at a presenters' confer- ence in Maryland. Bither and Brown's manager developed a residency plan which met all of their needs. Sup- ported by the New England Founda- tion for the Arts (NEFA), they found a way for Brown's ensemble to have that rarest commodity: weeks of relaxed resi- dency in a bucolic spot, the best possible environment for the development of new dance. The only question remaining was how to involve the Vermont community. They decided to concentrate outreach ac- tivities on one long weekend, so that the Vermonters wouldn't have to forgo the outdoor summer activities they craved, and the Brown company could focus uninterrupted time on their own work. A different company member taught a master class each Tuesday night during the three-week residency; between 20 and 30 people attended each session.


Early in the residency Brown presented a lecture-demonstra- tion in which she explored, in public, the movement problems she was in- vestigating with her dancers. During the open weekend, called "Evolution of an Artist," Brown hosted more than 200 people. She talked about her work; offered a company demonstration of her major themes from the past two decades and of the piece she was developing at the Flynn; opened her rehearsal to the public; screened a series of videotapes of earlier works in a downstairs space; and held a "meet the artist" discussion. Interested visitors could view both process and product, as well as spend social time meeting and talking with Brown and her dancers. All activities other than master classes were free; full concerts featur- ing the work developed during the 26 Trisha Brown Company New England Foundation for the Arts Flynn Theatre - *' residency were scheduled for late Feb- ruary, 1993. The "open-weekend" at- tracted local participants as well as visitors from as far away as Montreal, Brooklyn, Ohio and Boston. About 400 community people participated in the resi- dency in one way or another. An ideal balance was struck between the company's need to cloister itself and create new work, and the community's desire for opportu- nities to study and to observe. "Often a residency is about catering to the audience's needs," noted Fait- Meyers. "Here, the center was taking care of the artist's and the company's needs; the audience responded strongly to that. Partly, it was because Burlington is an aware, progressive, inquisitive community." "We struck the right balance between allowing enough time for the Trisha Brown Company to be on its own, and for it to give something back," said Bither. "One of the final events was an informal discussion on dance/music collaborations. We invited all the lo- cal composers, many of whom collabo- rate with area dancers.


Modulation

Written by, and with the advice of, senior technicians in these ratings, this series provides beginners with fundamental electrical and electronic concepts through self-study. The presentation of this series is not oriented to any specific rating structure, but is divided into modules containing related information organized into traditional paths of instruction. The series is designed to give small amounts of information that can be easily digested before advancing further into the more complex material. For a student just becoming acquainted with electricity or electronics, it is highly recommended that the modules be studied in their suggested sequence. While there is a listing of NEETS by module title, the following brief descriptions give a quick overview of how the individual modules flow together. Module 1, Introduction to Matter, Energy, and Direct Current, introduces the course with a short history of electricity and electronics and proceeds into the characteristics of matter, energy, and direct current (dc). It also describes some of the general safety precautions and first-aid procedures that should be common knowledge for a person working in the field of electricity. Related safety hints are located throughout the rest of the series, as well. Module 2, Introduction to Alternating Current and Transformers, is an introduction to alternating current (ac) and transformers, including basic ac theory and fundamentals of electromagnetism, inductance, capacitance, impedance, and transformers. Module 3, Introduction to Circuit Protection, Control, and Measurement, encompasses circuit breakers, fuses, and current limiters used in circuit protection, as well as the theory and use of meters as electrical measuring devices. Module 4, Introduction to Electrical Conductors, Wiring Techniques, and Schematic Reading, presents conductor usage, insulation used as wire covering, splicing, termination of wiring, soldering, and reading electrical wiring diagrams. Module 5, Introduction to Generators and Motors, is an introduction to generators and motors, and covers the uses of ac and dc generators and motors in the conversion of electrical and mechanical energies.


Modulation

Module 6, Introduction to Electronic Emission, Tubes, and Power Supplies, ties the first five modules together in an introduction to vacuum tubes and vacuum-tube power supplies. Module 7, Introduction to Solid-State Devices and Power Supplies, is similar to module 6, but it is in reference to solid-state devices. Module 8, Introduction to Amplifiers, covers amplifiers. Module 9, Introduction to Wave-Generation and Wave-Shaping Circuits, discusses wave generation and wave-shaping circuits. Module 10, Introduction to Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines, and Antennas, presents the characteristics of wave propagation, transmission lines, and antennas. tv Module 11 , Microwave Principles, explains microwave oscillators, amplifiers, and waveguides. Module 12, Modulation Principles, discusses the principles of modulation. Module 13, Introduction to Number Systems and Logic Circuits, presents the fundamental concepts of number systems, Boolean algebra, and logic circuits, all of which pertain to digital computers. Module 14, Introduction to Microelectronics, covers microelectronics technology and miniature and microminiature circuit repair. Module 15, Principles of Synchros, Servos, and Gyros, provides the basic principles, operations, functions, and applications of synchro, servo, and gyro mechanisms. Module 16, Introduction to Test Equipment, is an introduction to some of the more commonly used test equipments and their applications. Module 17, Radio-Frequency Communications Principles, presents the fundamentals of a radio- frequency communications system. Module 18, Radar Principles, covers the fundamentals of a radar system. Module 19, The Technician's Handbook, is a handy reference of commonly used general information, such as electrical and electronic formulas, color coding, and naval supply system data. Module 20, Master Glossary, is the glossary of terms for the series. Module 21, Test Methods and Practices, describes basic test methods and practices. Module 22, Introduction to Digital Computers, is an introduction to digital computers. Module 23, Magnetic Recording, is an introduction to the use and maintenance of magnetic recorders and the concepts of recording on magnetic tape and disks. Module 24, Introduction to Fiber Optics, is an introduction to fiber optics.


Modulation

The telegraph key, wire lines, and Morse code made possible almost instantaneous communications between points at great distances. Submarine cables solved the problems of transoceanic communications, but communications with ships at sea and mobile forces were still poor. In 1897 Marconi demonstrated the first practical wireless transmitter. He sent and received messages over a distance of 8 miles. By 1898 he had demonstrated the usefulness of wireless telegraph communications at sea. In 1899 he established a wireless telegraphic link across the English Channel. His company also established general usage of the wireless telegraph between coastal light ships (floating lighthouses) and land. The first successful transatlantic transmissions were achieved in 1902. From that time to the present, radio communication has grown at an extraordinary rate. Early systems transmitted a few words per minute with doubtful reliability. Today, communications systems reliably transmit information across millions of miles. The desire to communicate directly by voice, at a higher rate of speed than possible through basic telegraphy, led to further research. That research led to the development of MODULATION. Modulation is the ability to impress intelligence upon a TRANSMISSION MEDIUM, such as radio waves. A transmission medium can be described as light, smoke, sound, wire lines, or radio-frequency waves. In this module, you will study the basic principles of modulation and DEMODULATION (removing intelligence from the medium). In your studies, you will learn about modulation as it applies to radio-frequency communications. To modulate is to impress the characteristics (intelligence) of one waveform onto a second waveform by varying the amplitude, frequency, phase, or other characteristics of the second waveform. First, however, you will review the characteristics and generation of a sine wave. This review will help you to better understand the principles of modulation. Then, an important principle called HETERODYNING (mixing two frequencies across a nonlinear impedance) will be studied and applied to modulation.


Modulation

What two conditions are necessary> for heterodyning to take place? AMPLITUDE-MODULATED SYSTEMS Amplitude modulation refers to any method of varying the amplitude of an electromagnetic carrier frequency in accordance with the intelligence to be transmitted by the carrier. The CARRIER frequency is a radio-frequency wave suitable for modulation by the intelligence to be transmitted. One form of this method of modulation is simply to interrupt the carrier in accordance with a prearranged code. CONTINUOUS WAVE (CW) The "on-off' KEYING of a continuous wave (cw) carrier frequency was the principal method of modulating a carrier in the early days of electrical communications. The intervals of time when a carrier either was present or absent conveyed the desired intelligence. This is still used in modem communications. When applied to a continuously oscillating radio-frequency source, on-off keying is referred to as cw signaling. This type of communication is sometimes referred to as an interrupted continuous wave (icw). Development The use of a cw transmitter can be very simple. All that is required for the transmitter to work properly is a device to generate the oscillations, a method of keying the oscillations on and off, and an antenna to radiate the energy. Continuous wave was the first type of modulation used. It is still extensively used for long-range communications. When Marconi and others were attempting the transfer of intelligence between two points, without reliance on a conducting path, they employed the use of a practical coding system known as Morse code. You probably know that Morse code is a system of on-off keying developed for telegraph that is capable of passing intelligence over wire at an acceptable rate. Morse code consists only of periods of signal and no-signal. Figure 1-20 is the International Morse code used with telegraphy and cw modulation.


Modulation

The capacitors and rf chokes in figure 1-26, views (A) and (B), prevent surges of current. In view (B), the choke coil causes a lag in the current when the key is closed, and the current builds up gradually instead of instantly. The capacitor charges as the key is opened and slowly releases the energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductor. The resistor controls the rate of charge of the capacitor and also prevents sparking at the key contacts by the sudden discharge of the capacitor when the key is closed. MACHINE KEYING. —The speed with which information can be transmitted using a hand key depends on the keying ability of the operator. Early communicators turned to mechanized methods of keying the transmitters to speed transmissions. More information could be passed in a given time by replacing the hand-operated key with a keying device capable of reading information from punched tape. Using this method, several operators could prepare tapes at their normal operating speed. The tapes could then be read through the keying device at a higher rate of speed and more information could be transmitted in a given amount of time. Spectrum Analysis Continuous-wave transmission has the disadvantage of being a relatively slow transmission method. Still, it has several advantages. Some of the advantages of cw transmission are a high degree of clarity under severe noise conditions, long-range operation, and narrow bandwidth. A highly skilled operator can pick out and read a cw signal even though it has a high degree of background noise or interference. Since only a single-carrier frequency is being transmitted, all of the transmitter power can be concentrated in the intelligence. This concentration of power gives the transmission a greater range. The use of spectrum 1-32 analysis (figure 1 -27) illustrates the transmitted frequency characteristics of a cw signal.


Modulation

This means that its antenna (which can present a varying impedance) must not be connected directly to the oscillator circuit. The rf oscillations must be sent through another circuit before they are fed to the antenna for good frequency stability to be obtained. That additional circuit is an rf power amplifier. Its purpose is to raise the amplitude of rf oscillations to the required output power level and isolate the oscillator from the antenna. Any transmitter consisting of an oscillator and a single-amplifier stage is called a master oscillator power amplifier transmitter (mopa), as shown in figure 1-29. Figure 1-29.—Block diagram of a master oscillator power amplifier transmitter (mopa). Most mopa transmitters have only one tube amplifier in the power-amplifier stage. However, the oscillator may not produce sufficient power to drive a power-amplifier tube to the power output level required for the antenna. In such cases, the power-amplifier stages are designed to use two or more amplifiers which can be driven by the oscillator. Two or more amplifiers can be connected in parallel (with similar elements of each tube connected) or in a push-pull arrangement. In a push-pull amplifier, the grids are fed equal rf voltages that are 180 degrees out of phase. The main advantage of a mopa transmitter is that the power-amplifier stage isolates the oscillator from the antenna. This prevents changes in antenna-to-ground capacitance from affecting the oscillator 1-34 frequency. A second advantage is that the rf power amplifier is operated so that a small change in the voltage applied to its grid circuit will produce a large change in the power developed in its plate circuit. Rf power amplifiers require that a specific amount of power be fed into the grid circuit. Only in this way can the tube deliver an amplified power output.


Modulation

What is the purpose of frequency-multiplier stages in a VHF transmitter? AMPLITUDE MODULATION The telegraph and radiotelegraph improved man's ability to communicate by allowing speedy passage of information between two distant points. However, it failed to satisfy one of man's other communications needs; that is, the ability to hear and be heard, by voice, at a great distance. In an effort to improve on the telegraph, Alexander Graham Bell developed the principles on which modem communications are built. He developed the modulation of an electric current by complex waveforms, the demodulation of the resulting wave, and recovery of the original waveform. This section will examine the process of varying an electric current in amplitude at an audio frequency. 1-36 Microphones If an rf carrier is to convey intelligence, some feature of the carrier must be varied in accordance with the information to be transmitted. In the case of speech intelligence, sound waves must be converted to electrical energy. A MICROPHONE is an energy converter that changes sound energy into electrical energy. A diaphragm in the microphone moves in and out in accordance with the compression and rarefaction of the atmosphere caused by sound waves. The diaphragm is connected to a device that causes current flow in proportion to the instantaneous pressure delivered to it. Many devices can perform this function. The particular device used in a given application depends on the characteristics desired, such as sensitivity, frequency response, impedance matching, power requirements, and ruggedness. The SENSITIVITY or EFFICIENCY of a microphone is usually expressed in terms of the electrical power level which the microphone delivers to a matched-impedance load compared to the sound level being converted. The sensitivity is rated in dB and must be as high as possible. A high microphone output requires less gain in the amplifiers used with the microphone.


Modulation

The coil is located between the pole pieces of the permanent magnet. Any vibration of the diaphragm vibrates the armature at the same rate. This varies the magnetic flux in the armature and through the coil. 1-40 DRIVER ROD Figure 1-36.—Magnetic microphone action. When the armature is in its resting position (midway between the two poles), the magnetic flux is established across the air gap. However, no resultant flux is established in the armature. When a compression wave strikes the diaphragm, the armature is deflected to the right. Most of the flux continues to move in the direction of the arrows. However, some flux now flows from the north pole of the magnet across the reduced gap at the upper right, down through the armature, and around to the south pole of the magnet. When a rarefaction wave occurs at the diaphragm, the armature is deflected to the left. Some flux is now directed from the north pole of the magnet, up through the armature, through the reduced gap at the upper left, and back to the south pole. The vibrations of the diaphragm cause an alternating flux in the armature which induces an alternating voltage in the coil. This voltage has the same waveform as that of the sound waves striking the diaphragm. The magnetic microphone is very similar to the dynamic microphone in terms of impedance, sensitivity, and frequency response. However, it is more resistant to vibration, shock, and rough handling than other types of microphones. Changing sound waves into electrical impulses is the first step in voice communications. It is common to all the transmission media you will study in the remainder of this chapter. We will discuss the various types of modulation that arc used to transfer this information to a transmission medium in the following sections.


Modulation

FSK SIGNALS. —In fsk the rf signal is shifted in frequency (not amplitude) between "key-open" and "key-closed" conditions. The signal amplitude remains essentially constant. View (A) of figure 2-3 represents the letter "F" keyed as a shift in frequency between mark and space. The normal frequency condition with the key open is a space. Recall that this may be either the lower or higher frequency. When the key is closed, the frequency instantly changes to the mark value and remains constant during the marking interval. Opening the key again returns the frequency to the space frequency. Midway between the mark and space frequencies is the assigned channel frequency. Also shown in view (A) is the variation along the amplitude axis caused by the same noise and interference mentioned earlier. The right-hand portion of view (A) illustrates the elimination of this noise by the receiving equipment. View (B) clearly shows that scanning the signal along the amplitude and time axes reproduces no amplitude variations from signal interference. However, if the scanning is accomplished along the frequency and time axes, the intelligence is reproduced, as shown in view (C). By this system, the intelligence can be recovered at the receiving station in its original form; it will be nearly unaffected by conditions in the radio path other than fading. As a matter of fact, fsk resists the effects of fading better than cw. FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING. —In its simplest form, frequency-shift keying of a transmitter can be accomplished by shunting a capacitor (or an inductor) and key (in series) across the oscillator circuit. By locking the normal key of the transmitter and operating only the oscillator circuit key, you can change the oscillator frequency. The shift in frequency between mark (key-closed) and space (key-open) conditions is determined by the effect of the additional capacitance (or inductance) on the oscillator frequency.


Modulation

ADVANTAGES OF FSK OVER AM. —Frequency-shift keying is used in all single-channel, radiotelegraph systems that use automatic printing systems. The advantage of fsk over on-off keyed cw is that it rejects unwanted signals (noise) that are weaker than the desired signal. This is true of all fm systems. Also, since a signal is always present in the fsk receiver, automatic volume control methods may be used to minimize the effects of signal fading caused by ionospheric variations. The amount of inherent signal-to-noise ratio improvement of fsk over AM is approximately 3 to 4 dB. This improvement is because the signal energy of fsk is always present while signal energy is present for only one-half the time in AM systems. Noise is continuously present in both fsk and AM, but is eliminated in fsk reception. Under the rapid fading and high-noise conditions that commonly exist in the high frequency (hf) region, fsk shows a marked advantage over AM. Overall improvement is sometimes expressed as the RATIO OF TRANSMITTED POWERS required to give equivalent transmission results over the two systems. Such a ratio varies widely, depending on the prevailing conditions. With little fading, the ratio may be entirely the result of the improvement in signal-to-noise ratio and may be under 5 dB. However, under severe fading conditions, large amounts of power often fail to give good results for AM transmission. At the same time, fsk may be satisfactory at nominal power. The power ratio (fsk versus AM) would become infinite in such a case. Another application of fsk is at low and very low frequencies (below 300 kilohertz). At these frequencies, keying speeds are limited by the "flywheel" effect of the extremely large capacitance and inductance of the antenna circuits. These circuits tend to oscillate at their resonant frequencies.


Radio Shack CoCo Manual: OddJob Script Language Interpreter for OS-9 (1990)(Technoteacher Inc)

It is perfectly ok to use any amount of whitespace at the beginning of any command line, as well as between any two tokens. This makes it easy to show program structure, for example, by indenting the commands within an if, loop, or switch re- gion. It is also a good practice to indent continued lines to emphasize the fact that they are continued, as was done in the example above. 13 Section 6: MISCELLANEOUS SYNTACTICAL FEATURES This page deliberately left blank. 14 Variable Substitution There are really two distinct types of variable substitution at work in OJ. The main type, "dollar substitution," is used for all commands, period. The other type, "automatic substitu- tion," works only in calculational expressions ("calc expression" or "calc exp"), which are only found in certain parts of if, calc, loop, return, exit, and setprior commands. What makes things confusing, perhaps, is that both dollar and automatic substi- tution are at work in the commands that can contain calculational expressions. Dollar substitution is made available to the programmer via the $ character. As the inter- preter executes a script, each line of code undergoes tokenization, macro substitution, and then dollar substitution. In dollar substitution, if any token on the line begins with the $ character, that entire token is replaced by the entire contents of the variable whose name follows the $. At this point, the interpreter does not yet care which command is to be executed (i.e., what the first token on the line is); therefore all commands, including the calculational commands, are subject to dollar substitution. The second form of variable substitution, automatic substitution, is available without the use of the $ character. It only occurs in calculational expressions, however, and calculational expressions are found in only the following commands: if, calc, loop, exit, re- turn, and setprior. Here is a complete list of the places where calculational expressions can appear: if calc exp calc var = calcjexp loop label ; var = calcjexp ; calcjexp ; var = calc exp exit calcjexp return calcjexp set_prior calcjexp Please note that no calculational expression can be understood by the interpreter unless it appears in one of the above places.


This output is from the second fprintf. NOTE: Quotation marks surround the control strings in the fprintf commands in order to allow those strings to contain spaces and yet become one and only one token. Please note that the quotation marks surrounding any token are stripped off when the lines are tokenized, as is evident if you look above at the output generated because of the show_to- kens_on command. When you want quotation marks to form a portion of the control string, precede them with backslashes. NOTE: When you look at the output generated by the show__tokens_on command, please note that each token is displayed on your screen as if it had been processed by the alphameric command. The single leading backslash has been converted into two back- slashes; otherwise the interpreter might think a single character was meant by the combination of the backslash and the character following it, like \n. For more information about back- slash interpretation, see Section 10 and the alphameric command in Sermon 11. 20 Calculational Expressions The expressions found in calc, if, loop, exit, return, and set_prior com- mands are treated somewhat differently than the arguments of other commands. Variable names do not have to stand alone as individual tokens, and they do not have to be preceded by a $; the name will always be substituted for its value (a string) whether it is preceded by a $ or not (except, of course, for the variable on the left side of the assignment operator token = ). For a discussion of this automatic form of variable substitution, see Section 7 In OJ, calculational expressions may appear only in calc, if, loop, exit, return! and set_prior commands. Expressions may be of arbitrary complexity, although the number of levels of parenthesization is currently limited to a depth of 10.


No two labels can be the same in any one script. A valid label can have only one token on the line. A label can be any length. 60 Section 11; COMMANDS memory management local format: local varname^l (...varname_n) purpose: Force all the varnames to be local variables henceforth within this script (but not within any done or doing scripts). notes: There are two classes of variables in OJ. One is called "global," and the other is called "local.*' Both kinds work the same way, and they are used in the same ways. Indeed, you can ignore the distinction entirely, in which case all your variables will be global, except for the system variables qreturn, ex- itstat, argc, and argv[0 . . .n] , which are always local regardless of anything you may do. Global variables are created automatically whenever you set them for the first time. They are available thereafter throughout the entire invocation of OJ, in all called and calling scripts. Similarly, any global variables created and/or set in any scripts called via the do command will continue to exist and retain their new values even after the done script has returned to the doing script. Local variables are created by the local command. Any script which uses local variables should declare them at the beginning of the script with one or more local commands; this practice will make the script easier to maintain. However, it is ok to use local before any other mention of the variable, even if the local does not appear at the beginning of the script. Whenever a variable is mentioned by name, OJ looks to see whether it exists. It always looks first in the banktof local variables, and if it is not there, it looks in the bank of global variables. If the variable does not exist and must be set to some value, the variable is created as a global variable.


(... string_n) purpose: Write some bytes on a file (or to $stdout or $stderr). notes: qreturn will be set to a negative value if an error occurred, or it will be set to a positive value equal to the number of bytes written. All the string tokens will be concatenated and written to the file. Don't forget the $ before the file handle variable. To output text to the screen, use writefile $stdout or writefile $stderr. writefile uses fputc(), which means that when the output is to an SCF device (such as /tl) rather than to a file, the translations in effect for that device will be done. These translations may include the expansion of tab char- acters into some number of spaces, and the addition of a linefeed character to each carriage return character. If you do not wish these translations to take place, use the -writefile rather than the writefile form of the command, -writefile calls the low-level write() function rather than fputc(); write() does not perform the translation. (For more information about translation of char- acters, consult the documentation on the x mode program in your OS-9 manual.) writefile is a "backslash-interpreting" command. See also openf ile, fprintf, closefile, readfile, seekf- ile, and tellf ile. It's often handier to use fprintf. WARNING: Once a device or file has been opened, use either writefile or -writefile, but do not use both. Also, if you use -writefile, the only other i/o command you may use with its file handle is closefile! Do not attempt to use fprintf, readfile, seekfile or tellf- ile — the results will be unpredictable. 105 Section 11; COMMANDS This page deliberately left blank. 106 Interactive Script Debugger The debugger is built into the OJ interpreter. It allows the programmer to control and in- terrupt execution of scripts at arbitrary times, and, while execution is interrupted, to examine the contents of any or all variables" To be in debug mode, use the --d option when invoking OJ.


You will then see the first executable line of the script, followed by the prompt: OJdb: The line of your script which is displayed immediately above the OJdb : prompt is always the line which is about to be executed. At this prompt you may type any of the following single-letter commands (with their argu- ments] as appropriate), and then press the RETURN key. Each discussion of a single-letter command begins with a {mnemonic} word to help you remember what the letter means. Some effort has been made to make operation of the debugger similar to that of the OS-9 C language source debugger, although there are (of course) numerous differences. {Help} Lists information about the debugger on the screen. (Shell) Allows temporary escape to an OS-9 shell prompt. Logging out of the shell will return you to where you were, at an OJdb : prompt. Upon returning, you may wish to use the i and/or f commands to see where you are. WARNING: It is extremely dangerous to edit any script which has been left open by the 1 OJ interpreter you are temporarily escaping. When you come back and restart execution, literally anything can happen, including the destruction of valuable files. Be safe: fully exit OJ before editing any OJ scripts; do not use this shell escape for editing scripts. (Breakpoint) Displays the breakpoints currently in effect. Breakpoints are places in the script, descried as "scriptname\line_number" (note the backslash between tro r ?ptname and the line number), where you wish to halt execution ard get an OJdb : prompt. If the line num- ber is 0, that means "halt at the first executable line." 107 Section 12: INTERACTIVE SCRIPT DEBUGGER b scriptname {Breakpoint} Sets a breakpoint at the first executable line of script scriptname. One arrives at such a point immediately after any do or include command, at the first executable line of the included or done script When the breakpoint is encountered, execution halts and an O Jdb : prompt is displayed.


The grief process : analysis and counseling

Spiegel was most gracious with his time, and our discussions were extremely useful to me. I was especially impressed with his bibliographical card file on grief and bereavement, what I would imagine to have been the most complete bibliography on the subject in the world at that time. In addition, he had actually gotten his hands on most of the material and read it! It seemed to me at the time that a book that would come out of such resources would stand a good chance of making a major contribution. Two years later I had the opportunity to look over the two-volume* work that Dr. Spiegel had produced as it appeared in its publication by Kaiser-Grunewald in German. As I browsed through it, my judgment was confirmed to myself at least that the material and its organization would fulfill a useful role in the literature available in English. Now that Abingdon has arranged for its translation and publica¬ tion, I am happy to discover in reading the English manuscript both of my earlier judgments reconfirmed. Obviously, the writing of an introduction implies some stamp of approval on the book that follows. While I am not *The second volume consisted of detailed footnotes, some additional material, and an extensive bibliography. The primary references have been incorporated in this translation. Scholars who want to consult the more extensive technical material will find it in the annotations volume (Anmerkungsband) of the German edition. 8 FOREWORD uncritical of Spiegel’s presentation, I do recommend it for those interested in the serious study of grief. It is not light reading in many places, but its theoretical discussions always issue in practical procedures for the minister. Spiegel’s three professional orientations and competencies are reflected in the basic plan of the book, and the combination of these within one volume defines the volume’s unique place in the literature on grief as I know it He is an ordained minister and theologian, a professor of practical theology.


SWITZER 9 Preface to the German Edition The investigation undertaken in this book was accepted by the department of Protestant Theology at Ruhr University at Bochum as a dissertation in the field of practical theology. The text was edited and shortened for publication. The author is greatly indebted to the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft for awarding him a habilitation scholarship and financing a trip to the U.S.A. for the purpose of study. His gratitude is extended to the Protestant Church of Berlin-Brandenburg, especially Bishop D. Kurt Scharf, for a contribution to the printing of the first volume and to the German Research Society for the second volume. Manfred Josuttis and Rolf Zerfass, as well as the experts Hans-Eckehard Bahr, Joachim Scharfenberg, and Johannes Schreiber, have made important contributions. Elisabeth Pracht and Helmut Strack have been of great help in scrutinizing citations and in the process of reading the galley proof. Rosemarie Kurte and Liza Walter undertook the difficult task of typing the final manuscript. I want to thank them all. This study appears in two volumes. The first volume contains the text together with an index of more detailed literature, including the most important and more frequently cited essays and monographs. Those who are interested in the exact bibliographical data of the citations and in special literature on that subject are referred to the second volume containing the annotations. There, the comments to the 11 THE GRIEF PROCESS notes in the main text, as well as additional references to the subject under discussion, and an extensive bibliography of grief and related subjects, such as death, funerals, and depression can be found. * Personal experiences were the reason for this study. They evoked the question of death and how to cope with it I want to dedicate this book to Ina-Susanne who did not succumb to helplessness, but in her own way—in an intellectual struggle—sought to solve this crisis.


(2) The church, more than other organizations, is faced with the problem of dealing with grief. For reasons to be discussed in another context, the funeral has become more and more a function of the church. The frequency with which ministers are called upon to respond to the situation of grief makes such work an eminently practical theological task. (3) It is not uncommon that the pastor shows signs of confusion, anxiety, and cynicism during the process of the funeral. For instance, if the minister cannot comprehend the me aning of the ritual he has to perform, or if he does not know how to bring together the biblical message and the situation at the grave, he may feel unable and unprepared to talk to the bereaved in a helpful way. Anxieties arise in him because he himself is a mortal being, and each funeral reminds him of his own mortality. These anxieties are intensified through social as well as theological uncertainty. Because of this confusion and these anxieties, ministers as well as doctors will occasionally cynically devalue everything related to the funeral and the bereaved. They scorn the ritual that they carry out unwillingly. They accuse the mourners of insincere motives and they oppose the so-called death cult. It is the central, personal concern of this book to contribute to the provision of greater insight and better ways for the minister to cope with this very difficult part of his ministry. (4) Since the age of the Enlightenment, the nontheological disciplines have increasingly withdrawn from the question of life after death. With the end of classical German philosophy, that field has to a large extent ceased to include the question in the scope of its reflection. Explorations of the subject in the field of parapsychology have not gained recognition by the scientific community.


Almost the same holds true in regard to the meaning and value of death. For the most part these questions have been dealt with only by existential philosophy 21 THE GRIEF PROCESS (and there perhaps in an exaggerated manner). But the questions of death and immortality did not expire with the decrease of scientific interest. They were only repressed into the popular philosophical underground and stored in the subconscious, from which they have been resurrected by psychoanalytical research, which tried to explain them by introducing the concept of the death wish. Theology deserves credit for keeping the question of death and immortality open, even though it was scorned by the academic world. These questions have on the whole been left to theology by university and society. Yet, although theology has been required by its own self-definition to deal with these issues, it is doubtful whether it has provided much insight concerning them. Nevertheless, it has guaranteed that the questions of death and resurrection would not be silenced, and therefore theology has been able to offer some real help to the bereaved. The death of a person always raises the question of the meaning of death and its conquest to the survivors. Theology has insisted that these are to be considered legitimate questions, questions that are not completely answered by considering death a natural event which has to be accepted without question and complaint. Seen in this light, theology makes an essential contribution to coping with grief. Certainly theology throws light on human thoughts and behavior as it deals with biblical material. Nevertheless, the theological approach also requires a study and utilization of secular knowledge, making its theological statements in the context of precise and sensitive observations of specific human phenomena. This approach is the particular problem of practical theology in which it presumably differs essentially from other theological disciplines.


Theology therefore with good reason has adhered to the idea that man is a whole “person/* This study takes this theological premise seriously. But by working in an integrated manner it also strives to avoid the accusation of separation from other legitimate sources of knowledge. This means that the subject of grief and the mourner as a person will not be permitted to become split up into various scientific views but will be considered in their totality. As far as possible, this study intends to analyze the interrelated internal and external situation of the bereaved. The justifiable theological claim of keeping in mind the wholeness and unity of man is one aspect that legitimates this study as theological. (6) There is one concept of theology whose basic principle can be stated as follows: A theological task is given when, in a society, groups or individuals suffer under an oppressive social system without being able to help themselves effec¬ tively in their sufferings, or to experience sufficient help from others. Who the persons are who are suffering under the power structure may change from situation to situation. What tax collectors and Gentiles are in the New Testament may be the homeless and juvenile delinquents in another social context. Certainly mourners belong to one of those groups which are exposed to societal as well as internal pressures. They are avoided by others, and none of the “care giving agents/* whose profession it is to provide help and healing, feels himself responsible for them as long as the mourners keep within the limits of what is considered normal and do not fall into pathological forms of coping with grief. This makes it an urgent necessity for theology to take an interest in this issue. In many ways theology is less equipped for this task than other sciences.


Engel has in a certain way avoided the difficulty by 54 ^ THEORY AND SYMPTOMATOLOGY OF GRIEF not making a distinction between “normal” and pathological grief and characterizes grief generally as a disease: Certainly it involves suffering and an impairment of the capacity to function, which may last for days, weeks, and even months. We can identify a consistent etiologic factor, namely, real, threatened, or even fantasized object loss. It fulfills all the criteria of a discrete syndrome, with relatively predictable symptomatology and course. The grieving person is often manifestly distressed and disabled to a degree quite evident to an observer. 33 Engel then quickly responds to several objections made against the characterization of grief as a disease. To the objection that grief is simply a normal reaction, he replies by pointing to the fact that a wound or burn also is something normal. Like an injury, grief too constitutes suffering which is a part of life. To the argument that grief is a self-limited process requiring no medical attention, Engel responds that cultural expectations determine when symptoms are regarded as morbid and require medical attention by the physician. Actually, the mourner quite frequently consults the physi¬ cian, who just does not diagnose grief as an independent disease entity and treats the person suffering primarily from grief simply for insomnia or exhaustion. It is relatively easy to refute the objection that grief does not involve any somatic reactions and is not perilous: The experience of the disease and mortality rate 34 by mourners shows distinct increases over against corresponding control groups. In response to the argument that it is only a matter of a temporary and partial derangement in the functioning of the individual suffering a loss, Engel justifiably says one cannot speak of a disease only if every system on all levels of the person is disabled.


Sudnow has reported that information about a death is clearly structured in the hospital . 2 Since the physician has the duty to give the death notice, it can happen that hospital personnel who long since knew about the death are employed in the waiting room or hallways without informing the waiting family members. When the doctor appears, his behavior already betrays what is to be expected. For example, after the successful birth of a child, the doctor approaches the family with quick strides and shouts the news from a distance. In contrast, in the case of bad news, the doctor proceeds gravely with measured steps right up to the waiting party and makes the announcement often in a soft voice. In anticipation of the coming reaction, when possible this does not take place in public but in a private room or a secluded part of the corridor. As Sudnow observes, the doctor’s authority is so 62 THE PROCESS OF BEREAVEMENT great that the death notice given by the physician is in no way doubted or denied. If a doorkeeper or a nurse’s aide were to bring the news, it would, on the other hand, be subject to doubt. When the doctor undertakes the task of giving information, exchange of polite phrases usually does not take place. The decisive message is communicated in the first or second sentence and at the same time contains a medical explanation of why death was unavoidable. Then silence is kept on his part, while the bereaved show different reactions, ranging from loud lamentation to silent, controlled acceptance. Although a doctor generally can, based on his experiences, estimate the reactions of relatives, he nevertheless cannot sufficiently structure the resulting interaction with them, since in such a case the bereaved are socially permitted to act uncontrolled and there is no duty to pull oneself together.


In general three subjects dominate, the question of the cause, the question concerning the suffering of the deceased, and the question of un- avoidability. The bereaved frequently starts with the question: “What was the cause of his death?” With sudden deaths, such as those from heart attacks, the physician may respond by 63 THE GRIEF PROCESS asking whether such attacks have happened before. This is followed by a discussion of the history of the illness, which, however, does not have the character of a diagnostic inquiry about the disease but only provides material for talking about the actual circumstances of the death and explaining to the bereaved that the doctors have done everything possible. An important subject for discussion is whether the de¬ ceased suffered in a particular way while dying. Generally the answer is no, perhaps with some reference that the patient was under sedation. Sudnow supposes that doctors give such an answer even against their better judgment, just as the bereaved ask the question even though they were informed about the suffering. Finally, the question concerning the unavoidability of death is brought up. Even here the doctor most often takes the comforting position, that on the part of the family everything possible had been done in order to avoid the death. This has a therapeutic function, for the bereaved with great frequency reproach themselves about certain neglects and mostly overestimate them by far in their actual significance. Together with the relatively brief stage of shock and the stage of control by family, neighborhood, and "transition technicians" described in the following section, regressive behavior may have already set in. Still, a rapid breakdown of psychic organization in the second stage can be brought under control with the help of family members, if only for a short time. But it may also be the case that the bereaved either is so benumbed through the shock or summons so much self-control that regressive features during the stage of shock hardly become visible.


The controlled stage then may permit the bereaved to dispense with self-control and let himself go, because he can be confident that his environment will take care of him. Shock or self-control can also persist during the stage controlled by others, just as, on the other hand, a breakdown during the phase of shock cannot be brought under control in the following stage, in spite of all efforts made by the family. How the death notice can trigger an overpowering shock is described by Fulcomer in a case study: 64 THE PROCESS OF BEREAVEMENT The bereaved wife was a young woman, thirty-three years of age, the wife of a newspaper reporter. Death came to her husband the eighth day after he had been struck by an automobile. All eight of those days he hovered between life and death. Present in the room at the time of his death were the bereaved wife, the hospital staff doctor, a nurse, and a brother of the deceased. As soon as the doctor announced the death, the wife uttered a loud gasp and slumped in her chair. The brother and nurse grabbed her and prevented her from falling to the floor. Her eyes remained open but stared blankly at nothing in particular. Hospital attendants had to place her on a bed in an adjoining room and administer stimulants. She was kept in the bed almost a half hour before hospital attendants informed her brother-in-law that he might take her home. By that time a second brother-in-law had arrived and together they managed to get her home. But they had to support her (almost carry her) on the way to the car and also half carried her into her apartment when they had arrived. On the trip back to the apartment the bereaved women sobbed quietly at times but said nothing.


Two days later the brother-in-law wrote: “She acted so strange on the way home, too. She seemed to know what was going on but she didn’t pay any attention to us. She certainly was struck dumb and I got worried about her. I felt a bit peculiar myself. Perhaps we were all in a trance.” The bereaved wife ate no lunch. She remained in a state of collapse until her only son returned from school in the afternoon. As soon as he entered the apartment, she burst into tears and wept for at least ten minutes. Later she wrote the following in her journal: “No one ever knows what it is to lose a husband until it happens. Even though I knew it might happen, it came as a terrific shock to me. I was told what happened, but I do not remember anything until they put me into the car .” 4 The collapse does not always take place in such a visible way. The psychic breakdown may also show up in an outbreak of tears, which is often accompanied by complaints and self-reproaches. During such a collapse the bereaved are difficult to talk to; they seem scarcely aware of their environment, questions, and answers. Frequently they are benumbed and incapable of having clear ideas or thoughts. On the other hand, the following case study by Fulcomer shows a bereaved who acts completely controlled. 65 THE GRIEF PROCESS The bereaved spouse in this case was a man fifty-four years of age. The death of his wife had been considered inevitable for only a few hours; but the possibility of death had been admitted for three years. Present in the house at the time of death were: the bereaved husband, the family doctor, a neighbor and his wife, and a ypung lady who had been a long-time friend of the family.


Monterey news

Invariably, I run into many friends, whose interesting conversations keep me abreast of life in our community. Then, of course, there's the encounter with our Post Master, Walter Parks, who always leaves me with the feeling that I've just gotten the world's best bargain on a 29-cent stamp. But the real adventure comes when I actually open the post office box. You should see the type of mail a church receives — everything from denominational resources to religious advertisements to subscription bargains to financial statements to pleas for help from every worthy cause under the sun. And, as we all can attest to, there are many worthwhile causes in this world of ours to support. Recently, we received a letter addressed “To the Pastor of any Church or Member in Massachusetts.” The return address was Stinnett, Kentucky. Inside was a brief, handwritten letter by a mother of three young children, asking for “any used clothes or household items you no longer need.” The letter went on to speak of her three children — Marina, a three-month-old girl, and two sons, nine-year-old Travis and Benjamen, aged three. I shared the letter with our Parish Council, and we were all touched by the sincerity and need this woman expressed. So I gave her a call (she had included her phone number) and I found out that her husband was a coal miner who had been laid off with 250 other workers. Her grandmother had just died and her father is battling skin cancer. They are members of the Stinnett Holiness Church and had heard about the town of Monterey from her mother, who had read {something about it in a magazine.” I then learned that they lived in an area that I had visited several years ago when I was producing a movie for the Presbyterian Self-Development of People program.


Monterey news

The Grange met again on November 4 for a variety program. Lecturer Mary Wallace gave an informative report on the State Grange session at Sturbridge. Our fund-raising raffle was a great success. The Grange would like to thank everyone who helped. Winners’ names were drawn at the November 4 meeting. The gift certificate from the Monterey General Store was won by Susan Anderson. The gift certificate from Wards Nursery was won by Gail Heath. The gift certificate from Price Chopper was won by Gloria Lorkin. The basket of cheer from Domaneys was won by Louise Sweet. The basket of groceries donated by Monterey Grange members was won by Hazel Lee. The tote bag donated by Anne Vickerman was won by Arlene Stedman. The gourmet's delight, donated by Monterey Grange members was won by Alicia Brazie. The Grange met again on November 18 for Pirate Bingo, which was enjoyed by members and guests alike. Worthy Master Tillie Butler presented a blue ribbon and check to Eleanor Kimberley and Florence Brown for their work on the conservation exhibit at the Monterey Post Office during Grange Week in April. She also made the presentation of the National Grange Lecturer's Achievement Award to Mary Wallace. The next meeting will be December 2. The theme of the program is Preparing for Christmas. Members are asked to bring articles for Christmas cheer boxes. — Mary Wallace HUNTING REGULATIONS Deer season for shotguns is November 30- December 9, and for primitive firearms, December 21- 23. Asa result of the bylaw passed at the annual town meeting last May, new regulations are in force for hunting on private property in Monterey. All hunters on private property are required to have the written permission of the land owner on their persons. In order to facilitate the written permission, the town has made available triplicate, NCR-type forms.


Monterey news

Asinkat the bottom ofa watershed? arecreational facility for fishing, water sports and swimming? a water resource? a biological ecosystem? a tax revenue enhancement? a living organism? an endangered species? Answer: All of the above. Recognizing that the lake is all these things, the Lake Management Committee has begun an assessment of the lake's well being. All who live in and use the land in the watershed are lake managers. What we can do to effect the best practices for optimal lake quality? We hope to find answers by looking at several aspects of the problem. The first step is to get baseline information and professional correlation with our past data. Berkshire Environmental Consultants, the agency approved at our August meeting, has reviewed our 1989 data and completed a survey. They will develop a set of recommendations for long-range care of the lake and evaluate the effectiveness of present practices. That report is in process and will be summarized here in the future. The Lake Management Committee is also investigating other resources for monitoring and maintaining the lake. To this end, I (Patricia Edelstein) joined Association Vice President Martin Cherneff at the Congress of Lakes and Ponds (COLAP) fall training session on October 24. Between us, we covered all available workshops and met with state limnologist Rick McEvoy. We were told that the Clean Lakes Program is at the end of its lifespan, with no new grants coming out. There is an ongoing restructuring of state agencies. The Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) is becoming a purely regulatory agency, with its limited management functions being transferred to the Department of Environmental Management (DEM). To partially fill the gap, there is a program located at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst called Massachusetts Waterwatch Partnership (MassWWP). Begun in 1990, this program isa statewide collaboration of scientists, educators and volunteer citizens to collect water quality information.


Monterey news

Cherneff _ OUR TOWN O, Little Town This is the season of the year when we try to lose some of ourcynicism and find new reasons for faith and generosity. Andenduring popular figure for the season is Dickens’ character, Scrooge, who changes hiscynical nature through sharing during the holiday season. So, in our town, we'll put our civic Scrooge down under the bridge and enter the spirit of the season. The first menorah candle will be liton the evening _ of December 19, to start the eight-day Hanukkah feast. Christmas celebrations and music start long before the 25th, and everyone cheers the winter solstice and anticipates the magic of New Year's Day. Something spiritual stirs in each of us as we resolve to live more joyfully and be more helpful to friends and neighbors. Of course, the old troll will keep muttering there, under the bridge: It's unsafe, you know. Taxes are bad; we can't fix River Road; the lake is too low. He's not about to recycle things; the town center is in terrible shape, and those crazy lines on the streets. We can't change our zoning bylaws — they're terrible. You can't succeed without going to college; they don't keep our streets sanded like they used to. Businesses have to get big or fail — we could never organize waste treatment for Lake Garfield or Lake Buel — people drive too fast. Why do they keep trying to close our kindergarten — leave Route 23 alone — composting toilets are not cool. Why don't they allow hunting in town any more — people aren't as friendly as they used to be, and it rains too much. We will give half an ear to old Scrooge — everyone needs to be listened to. But, during this season, we can especially celebrate the more positive and hopeful things we've seen and done in our town.


Monterey news

All homeowners must have a say and not just a small minority speaking for the rest. Town residents will be asked to vote on a bylaw chance requested by the Lake Garfield Association to implement restrictions. These same town residents have no access to the lake whose fate they must decide. There is a boat ramp, but it is closed during the summer months. In order to launch a boat in the summer, atown resident must lower the boat in weed- and bug-infested water and paddle through a tube to enjoy the lake. How, covered with cobwebs and insect bites, are they to enjoy themselves? The year-round residents of Monterey should have access to the lake so they can also enjoy its recreation and beauty. The townspeople of Monterey will be asked to vote on this issue that directly impacts Lake Garfield residents, while Lake Garfield residents have no legal say. This puts both parties at a disadvantage. The townspeople have not had an opportunity to utilize the lake and see for themselves the things the Lake Garfield Association cites as concerns, yet, they must cast a vote. The Lake Garfield residents must put their fate into the townspeople's hands and trust in their fairness and integrity. Ihave lived on the channel, which is an area that is part of this debate, since 1956 and have raised my family here as summer residents. My children and most homeowners’ children have completed the Coast Guard course in boating safety. If safety is the issue, then proper education in boating safety should be the solution. When I chose to purchase waterfront property, I also chose to accept the impact the waves might have on my shoreline, as well as the noise created with recreational boating. Recreation and fun on the lake means noise, but if you want quiet woods and peaceful tranquility, then you should live in the woods and not on a lake. | The state boating laws that are being discussed are not new and are being followed by most boats.


Feminism and Marxism (1976)

About the Author Dorothy Ballan made her mark in the struggle for working women in the huge Cheektowaga plant (near Buffalo) of the Westinghouse Corporation, which is organized in Local 1581 of the International Union of Electrical Workers, CIO-AFL. She worked as a punch press operator, a low-paid, unskilled job, classified as Labor Grade 3. The company had divided the work force into 10 labor grades. Although the women in the plant constituted almost half the work force, they were all concentrated in Labor Grade 1 to 3, the lowest paid, unskilled jobs. The other 7 grades were, of course, for men. By defying the company’s discriminatory practice and mobilizing the support of union men and women, she broke the ban and won a bid for a Labor Grade 7 job — that of die-setter — on the punch press—never before performed by a woman. It was a first in the electrical industry. She also was a steward of a section of about 1000 workers; also an elected member of the Executive Board and one of the four top officers of Local 1581. Earlier she had been first a volunteer organizer and then a full-time organizer for Local 292 of United Paper Workers Union, CIO, in New York City. THE WOMAN IN HISTORY There is a profound revolutionary upsurge going on today that is shaking the very foundations of capitalist civilization. It can be seen in all phases of life: on the campus, on the picket line, more recently in the ranks of organized labor, above all in the Black liberation movement, and even in the church. So it is no surprise that there is also a widespread resurgence for women’s liberation despite the campaign of the ruling class to ridicule and distort it in an effort to obliterate its very progressive character. Many young women throughout the country are beginning to inquire into the origins of present day social relations of women, particularly as applied to the family.


Feminism and Marxism (1976)

Its development and transformation flowed from the material conditions of life and was most vitally affected by profound changes in the development of production. The historical epoch of mother-right For many hundreds of thousands of years, there was no such thing as a family as we know it today, anywhere on earth. The forms of organization that did exist were adaptations to the material needs. To survive and develop in the struggle against nature with little or no tools, men and women lived and worked cooperatively, equally and communally, with a division of labor between the sexes that came naturally. The period that began with the transformation of men and women from animal to human, and known as the period of mother-right, or the matriarchy, was a very long and complex period. If we were to reduce the many hundreds of thousands of years of human development to the scale of one year, the equivalent measurement would leave only a few days of historical time for the patriarchy; over 360 days of historical time belonged to the matriarchy. Cooperative social basis of matriarchy At the dawn of humanity, production was necessarily organized on a social and cooperative basis. Contrary to Hollywood stories of cave men who dragged passive women to their caves by the hair, and whose relations with each other was one of constant aggression and destruction—there actually was a high degree of social cooperation among all the people in a group which was reflected in the division of labor between men and women. It was the only way for humanity to survive in a hostile environment. Not only Hollywood, but all the religious and social institutions of today, as well as some anthropologists, can only see the development of primitive society through private-property-tainted glasses.