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SpiritualQuest - Alistair Shearer - Effortless Being. The Yoga Sutras Of Patanjali

These details of art in the cave sanctuaries, temples and ancient rustic shrines are the work of artists whose training was either analogous to methods propounded here by Patanjali or influenced by traditional yogic experience. Some of the photographs are directly linked with the practice of yoga. For example, the rock sanctuaries were actually used by monks and hermits for their yoga, in some cases at a date contemporaneous with the writing of the Yoga Sitras. Sculptures from Aihole and Mahabalipuram portraying venerable sages in meditation have been eroded over a period of fifteen hundred years — a veritable metaphor for that marmoreal stillness to which the practice of yoga aspires. The exploitation of natural accidents of configuration, as in a seam of laval rock left raw ina ceiling at Ajanta, communicates the essence of yoga: its irreducible innerness. Amongst its many characteristics, yogic experience is a penetration of the perennial enigma: illusion and reality. The Indian architect deliberately exploits this fact, placing images beside a shimmering pool, or leaving massive boulders unhewn beside the most highly finished detail to sharpen paradox. Some of the relief carvings and paintings of organic forms are a visual analogue to the experience of yogic meditation. The vertical strata of temple towers and rigorously geometrical masonry are likewise analogues of yogic states, though in no sense illustrative. Particularly striking is the sculptor’s feeling for the metamorphic quality and texture of stone: its crumbliness or polish, its rough granular surface or its inner luminosity seem to have been subtly exploited to convey the ‘sensation’ or ‘atmosphere’ of deep yogic absorption. The weathering of stone happily causes the mellowing of detail so that it drowns in shadowed or lustrous calm. Temples deserted for centuries or covered with the patina and lichen from monsoon torrents harmonize with the landscape and evoke a feeling of peacefulness which may persuade us to discover a similar tranquillity within ourselves.


It says that the human nervous system is the crowning glory of creation, because it alone has the ability to reflect the unbounded source of life in its immaculate and radiant purity. Man is made in the image of God. The desire to know the Self is implanted deep within each of us; a memory of Eden as old as the mind. However dimly perceived, this longing is the most refined expression of the dynamic urge to grow and progress which energizes all life and motivates every aspiration. Only when we realize our true nature, and the individual mind becomes infinite, shall we be satisfied. This Enlightenment is the first and last freedom; it is the state of effortless Being. We shall not cease from exploration, And the end of all our exploring Will be to arrive where we started And know the place for the first time TS. ere! The quest for the Self has enthralled mankind since the dawning of desire. Ancient myths of every culture tell the same story of our search for wholeness. As the mind explores its own depths, it uncovers archetypal images which sustain and guide the journey inwards. These are the signposts on the old road home, half-remembered from long ago. Each society hands down its stories of the great heroes who have made the journey before us as reminders and examples to those who follow. In Mesopotamia the King of Erech, Gilgamesh, leaves his city and sets forth to find the plant of immor- tality ‘never-grow-old’ that sprouts at the bottom of the Cosmic Sea. In ancient Greece the nobly born Odysseus seeks his island home of Ithaca, while Jason sets sail on the search for the Golden Fleece. And in the very different setting of Arthurian England, the Knights of the Round Table ride out on that most sacred of missions, the quest for the Holy Grail.


Though the details of the myths differ with time and place, their pattern is the same. First comes the initial challenge, the call to a fuller life, the promise of a new state of being. If the hero has the courage to accept the challenge, with all its awesome implications of metamorphosis, he embarks on the crossing of the initiatory threshold that marks the beginning of the journey. This death and rebirth will have to be repeated many times before the quest is accomplished, for there are trials and dangers to be encountered on the way, and every transformation suffered is a dying to the old and a resurrection into the new. Such travelling requires fortitude and perseverance. The decisions to be taken are not easy — the unwary are soon tranquillized by triviality, the song of the sirens is alluring and for every Galahad there are countless Launcelots. But the deserving seekers are sustained by unseen help, those hidden agencies of fairy tale and legend. For the dedicated there will in time come the final achievement: the apotheosis. Now the traveller can return, transfigured, to live as an example and inspiration to all those yet to complete the quest. These returned heroes are the great Teachers, the seers, saints and prophets, the spiritual leaders of mankind. Complete in themselves and reintegrated with the cosmos of which they are now a conscious instrument, they have reached the goal of yoga. With the seer of the Taittiriya Upanishad, their song rings out to all creation: ‘Oh wonderful! wonderful! wonderfull’ 10 If any country has traditionally considered the Quest to be the central purpose of human life, it is India. Her civilization has from earliest times been built on the bedrock of yoga. Yoga itself is not Indian, it is universal, but it 1s to that primaeval land that we must look to trace the background of the Yoga Siitras.


This enigmatic seal, barely two inches square, is imprinted with the Indus Valley script that remains undeciphered to this day. It is one of the very few pieces of archaeological evidence that acts as a link between the great cultural unity that spanned the Indo-Mediterranean world in prehistoric times, and the first Indian civilization that succeeded it. Like some mysterious cypher, encoded with the essential wisdom of yoga, the seal transmits a teaching that, since the dawn of history, has been inseparably linked with the primaeval and regenerative forces that govern both man and beast. The Indus Valley culture lasted until the middle of the second millennium BC. No one knows how or why it disappeared. All we do know is that at about this time the first waves of nomadic pastoral tribes from central Asia began to enter north-west India. These people, the Aryans, brought with them the Vedas, which are mankind’s oldest records of knowledge and the only surviving evidence of the Aryan civilization. They are richly poetic, sensuous descriptions of the eternal drama of the creation, maintenance and dissolution of the universe, and are said to be truths intuited by enlightened seers (rishis) at the beginning of this cosmic cycle. They have been passed down orally through an hereditary succession of pandits to the present day. Although these recondite chants have remained virtually unfathomed by Western scholarship, they have been of immense importance in shaping the whole of subsequent Indian culture. In their written form they are the sacred books of Hinduism — that loosely related group of religious beliefs and practices which is the offspring of the Vedic and indigenous cultures. Indeed, they are still revered as the fount of all knowledge by orthodox Hindus, who regard them as the textbooks of eternal truth (sandtana dharma). 12 Life in Vedic India revolved around the necessity of maintaining contact with the myriad celestial energies which uphold the universe.


This contact was essential to preserve the harmony of the cosmic hierarchy in which the human realm is only one among many. The way to sustain this universal order was twofold: through the perfor- mance of sacrificial ritual and the practice of yoga. The Vedas reiterate that, if the cosmic order is disrupted and the harmony between the various planes of creation broken, then suffering is the inevitable result. The Aryans saw no fundamental difference between the material and the spiritual worlds, or between the realms of mind and matter. Therefore it was of the utmost importance that thought, speech and action be life- supporting — in harmony with all other levels of the universe. As they lived by a code that sought to embrace all aspects of life, their society was organized as a microcosm of the natural order. This was probably the origin of the later caste system. The specialized knowledge of sacrificial ritual was the province of the brahmins. Because of this tradition of priestly expertise, the brahmins have continued to command enormous respect among the orthodox up until modern times. One group of Vedic texts, the Upanishads, is especially concerned with yoga. The oldest of the Vedas tells us that this knowledge is eternal and absolute, because it ‘dwells in the imperishable transcendental field of life’ (Rig Veda). In the forest hermitages of Vedic times, a group of pupils would gather around a teacher who instructed them in yoga and supervised their progress. We know that many such schools were still active at the time of the Buddha, and that he studied with several teachers before the great awakening. As a practical and non-ritualistic way to expand awareness, yoga was considered a vital means of ensuring individual evolution. Whereas only the brahmins had access to the ritual procedures which maintained integration on a general level in society, yoga was open to all.


Moreover, the whole atmosphere of Patanjali’s siirras is one of an assured and tranquil lucidity reminiscent of the classical Buddhist scriptures. Scholars have taken such parallels as proof that the sitras were heavily influenced by Buddhist teachings. It is more fruitful to see them as indications that both sets of texts drew on a common body of non-sectarian knowledge that had been available from time immemorial. Both were responses to the needs of the time, looking to a wisdom that is perennial. It was this same wisdom which inspired a contemporary of the Buddha, Mahavira. He also turned to yoga, and applied its methodology to a dogmatic system that was austerely monastic, and outside the tradition of Vedic orthodoxy. The result was Jainism. In fact each of the disparate elements of the Indian religious tradition are united by yoga; it is the hub around which they all revolve. The esoteric Tantric cults of Bengal adopted yoga as a means to ecstasy, and it was their baroque form of the teaching which was to provide techniques and ritual for the various sects, both Hindu and Buddhist, which flourished encapsulated in the remote Himalayan kingdoms. Bur yoga is not confined to the esoteric. At the other end of the Indian religious spectrum lie the great epics; the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. Finalized at the beginning of the Christian era, they originated much earlier. The epics are the life-blood of popular religion in the sub-continent, and their stories are told, sung, danced and acted by itinerant troupes who travel the length and breadth of the country even today. In many villages this is still the main form of education. A kaleidoscopic mixture of history, myth and religious instruction, the epics proudly proclaim the exploits of the gods and heroes who practised yoga and gloried in its power.


Yoga is a way to restore our lost wholeness, our integrity as complete human beings, by unifying the personality around a centre which is silent and unbounded. Yet yoga itself is not a religion. It is undenominational, relying not on faith but on a number of techniques that gradually lead the individual to the direct experience of those truths on which religion rests. We can call it the inner spirit of religion, the colourless sap which nourishes and strengthens all parts of the tree of life impartially. When the knowledge of yoga is lost or distorted, the sap withdraws and the branches become brittle, wither and eventually die. These are times of spiritual drought, the dark nights of the soul when humanity is cut off from itself and the Divine: The Puranas, India’s oldest sources of mythological lore, call them kali yuga, the times of blackness, when the Goddess of destruction stalks the land, and ignorance and suffering prevail. This is how the Vishnu Purana describes these times of spiritual aridity: Society reaches a stage where property confers rank, wealth becomes the only source of virtue, passion the sole bond of union between husband and wife, falsehood the source of success in life, sex the only means of enjoyment and outer trappings are mistaken for inner religion. We live in such times today. Indeed, it would be hard to imagine a period in the history of the world which had greater need of the teachings of our text. Fortunately, it is a natural law that action provokes reaction. One reaction to the crisis of modern civilization is a tremendous growth of interest in the teachings of yoga over the past few years. Yoga is relevant to our age because, far from being mystical or other- worldly, it is a teaching firmly grounded in physiological reality and can be understood in contemporary terms.


Yoga itself is neutral. It is a catalyst that allows us to grow in whichever direction is natural and life-supporting. Its methods work on the physical seat of consciousness, the nervous system and, as far as yoga is concerned, a Hindu nervous system is no different from an Islamic or agnostic one. Each obeys the same laws that govern the operations of mind and body. Whoever practises yoga will be enlivened in his or her own way. Every morning put your mind into your heart and stand in the presence of God all the day long An anonymous monk of the Eastern Orthodox Church All the great religions have used the techniques of yoga to lead the mind inwards to that silence which is the heart of the religious life. Each tradition has developed its own variations on the theme of our text. The dance and ritual movement of Islamic Sufism, the ‘Jesus prayer’ practised by the Hesychast Monks of Mount Athos, the martial art techniques of the Taoists in China — these are just some of the many ways of stilling the mind and reaching the silence within. Performed in the context of different faiths, they may differ in expression, but in essence they are one. Such universality may seem strange to those brought up in the Judeo- Christian tradition. The hallmark of these religions is their emphasis on historical uniqueness and, by their own admission, they worship a jealous God. But evena cursory look at Christianity, for example, shows that its aims are perfectly compatible with the teachings of yoga. The ultimate goal of the Christian life is union with God through loving contemplation. All the contemplative practices of the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Protestant churches have their roots in the teachings of the desert Fathers of Egypt and Syria.


Each new commentator brings the light of his own understanding to bear on the original gnomic texts; his conclusions then become part of the tradition. The earliest commentary on the Yoga Sitras dates from the fifth century, and is attributed to Vyasa, of whom we know little. Tradition loosely identifies him with the compiler of the Mahabharata and the Puranas, but vyasa means ‘the arranger’, and may well be a title given to renowned scholars rather than the name of an individual. Vy4sa’s interpretation has been con- sidered virtually indispensable for an understanding of the si#tras, and has been the starting point for nearly all subsequent commentary. As the nodes of what was, and still is, essentially an oral teaching, the sutras are almost like lecture notes, mnemonics. Each sittra resembles a knot of the finest thread that must be teased out and unravelled, so that every inch of its meaning is displayed. Only then can the whole fabric of the teaching be woven together. The spinning of this thread which guides us back out of the maze of ignoranee is the work of a teacher (guru). He, by definition, is one who enjoys the higher levels of consciousness described in the text. Teaching from his own experience, he is able to lead the pupil from darkness (gu) to light (rw). For those without such guidance, the structure of the Yoga Stitras has caused much confusion. Because the text appears to be disjointed, modern scholars have set about dissecting it in an attempt to uncover the ‘original text’ and identify later additions and influences. The consequence of such investigations 1s a tattered remnant composed of unrelated pieces. Each section is pronounced to be of a different age and origin and to represent a different view. Asa result the unity of the whole is destroyed and its practical value as a vital teaching is completely lost.


Given the innate conservatism of this tradition, it is extremely unlikely that the text of the Yoga Sutras has altered significantly since it was compiled. Any innovative insight into its meaning will have taken the form of a fresh commentary, not an alteration of the text itself. Over the centuries the siitras have been thoroughly examined by some of the most acute minds in India. Early in the eleventh century the celebrated scholar al-Biruni made a translation into Arabic which exerted a seminal influence on Sufism. In practical terms the Yoga Siitras have remained a guiding light for generations of seekers after truth in both East and West, and are still considered the most authoritative source book on yoga today. Such continued esteem cannot be baseless. 20 Either we assume that Patanjali knowingly cobbled together a teaching that is inconsistent and in parts contradictory, or we accept that the text has an inner unity which has to be approached on its own terms. Our difficulty in understanding Patanjali’s work as a unified whole lies not so much in the text itself as in our expectations of it. The first thing to realize is that the siitras are not intended to be a literary work. Nor are they concerned with presenting a linear, sequential argument which is to be debated, and then accepted or refuted. Their purpose is to describe the stages of a journey that is unfamiliar to most of us. They view life from a vantage point which few of us realize exists. Imagine a climber on the mountain slopes. He looks down on the villages with their cultivated fields spread out below. Another person, who has reached the summit, sends down a report that beyond these fields lie dense forests and then open plains, stretching to a vast and shoreless sea.


Hartzog - JOHN WESLEY' S UNDERSTANDING OF

How are we to understand and interpret sexual violence as an experience of suffering in light of our faith? How does the relationships between sexuality and sexual violence affect our under¬ standing of Christian sexual ethics? How has our understanding of Christian sexual ethics contributed to our unresponsiveness to sexual violence? For the theological community to begin to address these kinds of ques¬ tions would be to introduce a new reality for the sexually abused victims. 9 Ibid., p. 43 10—. • j Ibid. 11 Ibid. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 This project will build on my understanding of Wesley's Order of Salvation as a reference and beginning point for moving toward a new reality for sexually abused victims. It will seek to develop this overarching reality by integrating both theological and clinical realities in a model for use by pastoral counselors. Thesis It is my contention that the time has come for pastoral counselors and religious leaders to join with secular clinicians and agencies in order to bring together our specialized skills, insights and personal gifts for the purpose of healing, intervening and addressing the catastrophic devastation of incest on the victims, offenders. and society at large. As Marie Fortune points out: The crisis of family violence affects people physically, psy¬ chologically and spiritually. Each of the dimensions must be addressed, both for the victims and for those in the family who abuse them. Approached from either a secular or religious perspective alone, certain needs and issues tend to be disregarded. This reflects a serious lack of understanding of the nature of family violence and its impact on people's lives. Treatment of families experiencing violence and abuse requires interpreting the needs of the whole person. Thus, the importance of developing a shared understanding and cooperation between secular and religious helpers to deal with family violence cannot be emphasized too strongly.


People confronting the problem of good and evil are all "indications of their efforts to understand their experiences and to place the experience in a context of meaning for their lives. John wesley refers to this kind of growth as working out our own salvation, becoming sanctified moving toward health and wholeness. This project will focus on the contribution of Wesley's understanding of the Order of Salvation and the contribution of clinical expertise each being in dialog with the other in the healing of persons, especially women, who have been sexually assaulted as children. Brought together, each correcting and contributing to the other, bring a new quality of life to the survivor. In addition, this project is designed to assist and inform pastoral counselors in introducing a survivor into a new reality, by breaking the silence of her kept secret, in order that she might enter into the process of sanctification, that journey of being made whole. As pastoral counselors we have at our disposal those means by which we can bring together the healing of the whole person. The pastoral counselor holds a unique position within the social services community. We not only have at our disposal psycholog¬ ical methods and techniques but we are the channels of God's grace in the world. We are, in the words of Henri Nouwen, the "living reminders"^ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 of God's presence. If we are to take seriously that sexual violence affects the whole person, physically, psychologically and spiritually, the pastoral counselor then provides the means by which all three are brought together by introducing the sexually abused person into the new reality of relationship with herself, her God, and her neighbor. Definition of Major Terms The term incest comes from the Middle English and Latin "incestus, unchaste, impure." The meaning given in the American Heritage Dictionary is Sexual union between persons who are so closely related that their marriage is illegal or forbidden by custom.


As Christians our faith informs 28 Rosemary Radford Ruether, New Woman New Earth: Sexist Ideologies and Human Liberation (New York: Seabury Press, 1983) p. 14. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 14 us that there is a God, the Creator, Redeemer and Sustainer of the world. And further that while God bestows on us free will, the ability of discernment, and the power of free choice, God's own "prerogative re- 29 mains uncompromised." In light of this we can believe that God redeems good out of bad, power out of powerlessness; and healing out of alienation. God's reality transcends our reality and creates for us a new quality of life. The term quality of life is defined as ...that which makes for a society that is just, participatory and sustainable... The biblical conception of the quality of life is not limited to spiritual life nor is it hedonistic in nature. Rather, the spiritual and the material belong together. The spiritual life is the intrinsic good which ultimately defines the meaning of quality. Material existence is the instrumental good and makes it possible. Quality of life is ultimately a non-materialistic point of reference, but there can be no quality of life unless the material base is sufficient to sustain it.30 The quality of life for the incest survivor has enormous impli¬ cations. The reality out of which they define their quality of life is one of bankruptcy and fear—bankruptcy in the sense of personal power and self-esteem and fear of losing what little they have in the way of food, shelter and clothing. Oftentimes when a child does report incest they are the ones punished, taken out of the home and placed elsewhere. For the adult survivor, it often means leaving an abusive situation in their marriage and moving into a shelter.


Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 20 (Psychiatric Director of the Women's Mental Health Collective in Somerville, Mass.), Joan Robbins and Rachel Siegal (both are feminist therapists in private practice), Florence Rush, psychiatric social worker and Sandra Butler. Feminist theologians such as Ruether, Florenza and ethicists and educators and pastoral counselors such as Harrison, Gilligan and Fortune have been drawn upon to help in the exploration of a new reality for women in which the redemption of women's lives can be real. I have used John Wesley's own sermons as a primary source for building the framework and defining the method that helps both survivor and pastoral counselor transcend the traditional and oppressive realities that has entrapped, blamed, subjugated and punished women. Together, these authors have provided the impetus for my thinking, understanding and construction of what is available to counselor and survivor through the means of dialog between feminist therapy, theology and Wesley's understanding of the Order of Salvation. The literature I have chosen is by no means exhaustive of the available literature, but rather it is representative of the work currently being done by feminists in the field of child sexual abuse. The Project Outline In the second chapter, the problem of incest will be examined historically with special attention being given to the impact of biblical and cultural influences. The problem of family violence can no longer be ignored, pushed aside or erased. It has been said that family violence has reached epidemic proportions crossing all lines of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 21 class, race and nationality. Family violence no longer is just the ill of those on the wrong side of the tracks but has found its way into white, upper middle-class churches.


No longer does one have to make a trip to the prisons in order to find out about family violence: our pews will provide the same information. As responsible persons called into participation in the Kingdom of God we must look at how we are informed and what informs us as Christians. To understand our illness (for family violence and incest are not individual ills, but the illness of the collective community), we must know our history. We must also know our cultural inheritance in order to make the Kingdom of God a reality for all. Our biblical and cultural inheritances are passed on from generation to generation through story. Chapter 3 is the story of an incest survivor and her family. In addition, it includes a clinical examination of the dynamics of her story in order to inform us of the patterns of behavior indicative of an incestuous family. Treatment of incest will be examined in Chapter 4. The history of treatment for the incest survivor is a relatively recent phenomenon beginning in the early 60s. With the advent of the women's movement and feminist therapy in the 70s we find a significant amount of work being done. A's story will first be looked at clinically in light of feminist research and treatment and secondly in light of theological insights from Wesley's Order of Salvation in dialog with feminist therapy. Treatment for the survivor, understanding the family dynamics and patterns, being in dialog with the clinical community are all essential elements in the healing of the individual. However, even this Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 22 is not enough. Until we begin as a society to look at how we perpetuate this crime, incest will continue to haunt us. Theological Fields of Study "Sexual violence as a topic for ethical (and theological) dis- OO course among Christians has gone unaddressed" says Marie Fortune.


Hutchinson, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 26 Historical writings record religious myths in such a way that the subordination of women has been continually perpetuated. This fact is illustrated by numerous feminist theologians, most notably Rosemary Ruether and Mary Daly. Only since the 1960s have women begun asking questions about the origins of their subordination to men. To reconstruct women's history has just now only begun. Such theologians as Daly, Fiorenza, Ruether, Russell, and Trible have brought to light that significant numbers of historians have assumed the authority and superiority of men, never questioning who ordained them superior. The very early concept of a matriarchy, according to Ruether, has virtually vanished from the pages of history. Instead what we have inherited are religious writings of men, structured to ensure that they are given their full and due respect through the obedient, and submissive position of women. Religions from around the world, although they acknowledge a feminine side to them, have come down through the ages translated in a hierarchial structure of what is to be valued. They have arrived and been sustained on lofty principles of moral and ethical behavior, but nonetheless they have still relegated women as inferior beings. Many theologians argue this is simply not so, but a closer look at how religions have, either implicitly or explicitly, relegated women into inferior positions informs us today that there is much validity to our concern. Rosemary Ruether in her book New Woman New Earth questions how the hierarchal structure came into being. She begins by dividing her inquiry into three main developmental categories: 1) The Conquest of the Mother; 2) The Negative of the Mother; and 3) the Sublimation Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of the Mother. She begins by addressing the two critical turning points in the socio-economic history of women.


In addition it has previously been pointed out that incestuous involvements between father and daughter while not condoned are easily overlooked as long as he gives her away in marriage. The only valid reason given for him not to have incestuous relations with his daughters is not so much because it is a personal affront to them but would result in their devaluation in the marriage dowry. The Biblical law is quite clear regarding incest'laws' and is clearly addressed to men presupposing and assuming that men indeed are the givers and receivers of women. The Biblical law as outlined in Leviticus 18 clearly articulates the social law theory in that it names every conceivable kind of incest except that between father/daughter! None of you shall approach to any that is near of kin to him, to uncover their nakedness: I am the Lord. The nakedness of thy father, is the nakedness of thy mother, shalt those not uncover: she is thy mother; thou shall not uncover her nakedness. The nakedness of the father's wife shalt thou not uncover: it is thy father's nakedness. The nakedness of thy sister, the daughter of thy father, or daughter of thy mother, whether she be bom at home, or born abroad, even their nakedness thou shalt not uncover. The nakedness of thy son's daughter, or of thy daughter's daughter, even their nakedness thou shalt not uncover: for theirs is thine own nakedness. The nakedness of thy father's wife's daughter, begotten of thy father, she is thy sister, thou shalt not uncover her nakedness. Thou shalt not uncover the nakedness of thy father; sister; she is thy father's near kinswoman. Thou shalt not uncover the nakedness of thy mother's sister for she is thy mother's near kinswoman. Thou shalt not uncover the nakedness of thy father's brother, thou shalt not approach to his wife: she is thine aunt.


Her father has since moved to Southern California while her mother remains in New York City. Presenting Appearance: A. is oriented to time, place and date and can give an accurate history of her life events. Her affect is flat, her mood labile. Her relational attitude is that of being clingy until someone hurts her, doesn't understand her, or doesn't any longer care about her. She is short and stocky. Her dress is polyester, mix and match, not all the time matching. Her appearance is neat and clean on her good days, disheveled and unkempt on her bad days. Her gate is that of a shuffle, aimlessly maneuvering herself from place to place. On occasion she does walk with a bounce, usually when she first meets someone who likes her and hasn't done anything to hurt her (i.e., confront her about anything). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 45 Presenting Problem: A. presented as depressed and feeling suicidal. She claimed that she could no longer live with her husband's jealousy. She felt trapped, alone, lonely and isolated—"I am just going crazy." She came to the hospital after an unsuccessful suicide attempt and became so depressed she could no longer get out of bed and begin the day. She was also sexually dysfunctional which aggrevated her husband and made him accuse her of "getting it elsewhere." Significant Others: A. is very dependent on her husband and daughter. She has tried to reincorporate her father into her life but he has remarried and no longer has time for her or her daughter which angers A. considerably be¬ cause of his previous involvement and support—both financially and materially. A. does not get along with her mother who remains in New York although her mother has tried to reestablish contact with A.


A. has no outside support group, friends or working acquaintances, although she is now part of a CETA training program as well as daytime therapy group. Work History: A. has a long work history consisting mainly of jobs as dishwasher, janitor, cook and housekeeper. She has not been able to keep a job for longer than five months. She reports the reason for this as being because of her husband's jealousy of her being out of the house. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 46 Counseling History: A. has a history of multiple hospitalizations. Her first hospital¬ ization at age seventeen in New York was for a nervous breakdown and depression. She spent approximately eight months in the state mental hospital. Her other hospitalizations have occurred here in Southern California. Diagnosis is major depressive disorder. As far as I know A. received no outpatient therapy after her hospitalizations except for medication checks until this last hospitalizations when she was referred to a daytime treatment program in her community. Personal History: A. is an only child born into an Italian working class. Catholic family in New York City. She was educated in the public school system, however, dropped out during her senior year when her grades began to sharply decline. Up until her senior year A. reported that her grades were satisfactory but that she began losing interest in her school rapidly toward the end of her senior year. She further reported that when her senior year came all she was interested in was just getting through. According to A. she had dates but found that the only reason the boys asked her out was to "simply go to bed with me." A. does not recall anything especially good about her childhood except for the special times she spent with her father.


Shen she was young her father, a television repairman, would take A. with him to work. They would spend many hours in his workshop, he teaching her how to fix televisions, and work with her hands on simple projects. These were the special times for A.; although these times too would change for her. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 47 According to A. her parent's marriage really wasn't a marriage, although she imagined at one time they must have loved each other. Their trouble seemed to begin when she was bom, but these were only vague memories. Her current memories of her parent's marriage were that her father virtually ignored her mother except for those times when they had to rush her to the hospital (usually 2-3 times per week). Her mother, a hypochondriac according to A., was very demanding and showed little to no love or affection toward A. or her father. A.'s mother was incessantly sick oftemtimes screaming out in the middle of the night that she was dying, demanding that A. and her father take her to the hospital. Then, they would bring her home again even more demanding than when they had left the house. Her mother lay lifeless and listless on the couch in their small one bedroom flat calling out on those occasions when she wanted something or a special favor from A. A.'s father all but abdicated his role as husband, as did A.'s mother abdicate being wife and mother. This left A. in the roles of daughter, housekeeper, cook, nurse, wife, companion and daughter. A.'s mother refused to sleep in the bedroom choosing instead to use the family's couch as her bed (formerly A.'s bed). Not wanting to upset her mother A. slept on a makeshift bed on the floor close to her mother.


CMH Pub 72-5 India-Burma: The U.S. Army Campaigns of World War II

Stilwell told the crowd of reporters in the Indian capital of New Delhi. It was May 1942, and the American general, who had only recently arrived in the Far East to assume the position of chief of staff to Chinese leader Chi- ang Kai-shek, was chafing at failure in his first command in the field. Following the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor the previous Decem- ber, the Japanese had won victory after victory, extending their em- pire from Wake Island in the Pacific to Malaya and Singapore in Southeast Asia. When Stilwell had arrived in the embattled Chinese capital of Chungking in March, the Japanese were already driving into Burma, capturing the capital of Rangoon on 6 March. The American general took command of two Chinese divisions and, in cooperation with the British and Indians, tried to stem the Japanese onslaught. Defeated, he and his staff endured a rugged, 140-mile hike over jun- gle-covered mountains to India. By occupying Burma, the Japanese had not only gained access to vast resources of teak and rubber, but they had dosed the Burma Road, 700 miles of dirt highway that rep- resented China's last overland link with the outside world. The re- opening of an overland route to China would be the major American goal, indeed obsession, in the theater throughout the campaign. Strategic Setting The objective of restoring a land route to China originated in part in hard strategic considerations, specifically the need to keep China in the war to tie down Japanese troops and serve as a base for future operations against the Japanese home islands. But it also re- flected an idealistic American view of China as a great power, ca- pable of a major contribution, and the romantic image held by many Americans of China's heroic struggle against superior Japanese equipment and arms.


He simultaneously served as chief of Chiang's joint Allied staff, President Roosevelt's personal representative to the Chinese leader, administrator of Lend-Lease, and commanding officer of the China-Burma-India (CBI) Theater of Operations, which he es- tablished on 22 June. With headquarters at Chungking, a branch office in New Delhi, and a primary mission to supply China, the CBI theater was largely logistical in nature. Cargoes entered the theater at Karachi, Pak- istan, and, once the threat from Japanese air power lifted, at Cal- cutta, India. They then proceeded by railroad, road, and ferry to Assam, the Indian province closest to the Burma border. Theater communications suffered from the fact that the British had designed the defenses of India to meet an attack from the western ap- proaches, leaving the transportation network in the east less well de- veloped. Not only were lines of communications unusually long — Assam was an incredible 67-day journey by rail from Calcutta — but they also were congested and inefficient, plagued by differing rail- road gauges, slow construction, and differing national attitudes on allocation of resources. The situation improved somewhat in No- 6 vember 1943 when the Allies reached an agreement for 4,600 Amer- ican railroad workers to help operate key sections of the lines. Once the goods reached Assam, rickety transport planes had to fly them over the Himalayas to China. Pilots flying this route, called the "Hump," had to contend with poor weather, 15,000-foot mountain peaks, and enemy fighter planes operating from a base at Myitkyina. Two major American units operated under the CBI theater. The first American troops to arrive in the theater — air force personnel from Java — got to Karachi in March 1942. They formed the nucleus for the India Air Task Force, later the Tenth Air Force, which pro- cessed and trained crews for combat and transport activities.


As pleased as they were with such a performance, Stilwell and Mer- rill were anxious to keep down Galahad's losses, particularly given its status as the only available American combat unit. They relieved the Marauders with a Chinese regiment on 7 March. By that time, Tanaka had decided to withdraw south along a hastily built bypass of the American roadblocks to a strong position on the Jambu Bum, a range of low hills at the southern end of the Hukawng Valley. In his plan for the campaign, Stilwell had hoped to reach the Jambu Bum before monsoon rains forced suspension of active oper- ations. His divisions were practically the only Allied force making progress in the campaign. Not only had Chiang postponed Y Force's advance, but the British, far from moving into Burma, were trying to hold against a major Japanese offensive into India. This Japanese ad- 14 vance, which began on 8 March, threatened both the British Army in Assam and Stilwell's supply line to India. For the moment Stilwell could still proceed, but he would have to keep a close watch on de- velopments to the southwest. He accordingly laid plans for the Chi- 15 nese to continue their advance on the 18th Division's front, while Galahad would split into two parts, again envelop the Japanese right flank, and cut Japanese communications in two different places. In this flanking movement, Galahad had to march through some of the most difficult terrain of the campaign. The Marauders needed to climb out of the Hukawng Valley onto the hills to the east and then move south through territory in which only the extremely steep, narrow valley of the Tanai offered an avenue of approach. Fortunately, the Marauders in their march unexpectedly encoun- tered the Kachin guerrillas, who served as guides, screened the ad- vance, and even provided elephants as cargo bearers.


The Marauders anticipated a lengthy rest, but Stilwell had other ideas. The CBI chief received assurances from the British in April that the situation to the south was under control, but he was under pressure from the Joint Chiefs of Staff to seize Myitkyina as soon as possible. Thus in late April, as the Marauders read their mail, re- ceived new issues of clothing, relaxed from their labors, and looked forward to the long rest in the rear which they believed they had earned, "a grotesque rumor began to be heard, passed along in dep- recating tones, pretty much as a joke." The rumor proved true. Stil- well was forming a task force of the Marauders, two Chinese regi- ments, and some Kachin guerrillas to carry out a quick overland march to seize the airfield at Myitkyina. The American commander recognized the poor condition of Galahad, but he believed he had no alternative. He promised Merrill that he would evacuate Gala- had without delay "if everything worked out as expected." Stilwell's promise sustained the Marauders through the grueling 65-mile march over the 6,000-foot Kumon range to Myitkyina. De- spite the efforts of an advance party of Kachins and coolies, the trail followed by the task force proved treacherous to negotiate. Mud transformed sections of the path into slides, and in places the Ma- rauders had to cut steps out of the ground for their supply mules to obtain a foothold. Even so, a number of mules lost their footing and fell to their death. The smothering heat and humidity, the rugged ter- rain, and disease caused some Marauders to drop out of formation along the way. On 6 May advance patrols clashed with the Japanese garrison at Ritpong, leading Galahad's commanders to worry that their task had been compromised. Nevertheless, the Marauders pressed on, finally reaching the vicinity of the airfield on 16 May.


Despite the concerns of the commanders, the attack on the air- field on the morning of 17 May caught the Japanese completely by surprise. While Galahad's 3d Battalion feinted toward the northern end of the defenses and the 1st Battalion seized the Irrawaddy ferry terminal at Pamati on the right flank, a Chinese regiment overran the airstrip and probed toward Myitkyina itself. Lacking accurate intel- ligence on the defenders, this initial attack on the city fell into con- fusion and was easily repulsed. Nevertheless, exultation reigned at Stilwell's headquarters when word arrived of the capture of the air- field. The general made arrangements to fly in Chinese reinforce- 17 A 75-mm. pack howitzer supports GALAHAD 's siege operations at Myitkyina. (DA photograph) merits and, exuberant over his success despite British skepticism, he wrote in his diary, "WILL THIS BURN UP THE LIMEYS!" The jubilation over the capture of the airfield soon dissolved in the gloom of a siege. Houses and railroad cars around the city and roads that rose twelve feet above flooded rice paddies provided nat- ural fortifications for the defenders, who may actually have outnum- bered their besiegers. Fortunately for the Allies, the Japanese grossly overestimated the strength of their opponents and stayed on the de- fensive. To fill gaps in the Allied line, Stilwell and his staff scrambled to find whatever troops they could. Swallowing his pride, Stilwell requested help from the British 36th Division, only to be informed that no troops would be available for another two months at the ear- liest. Engineers and Galahad replacements went into the line, fre- quently without sufficient infantry training. The arrival of the mon- soon and the lack of heavy weapons further slowed the operation. A series of attacks made little headway against the defenses, and by 2 June, the Allies had resigned themselves to a lengthy investment.


The Allies possessed nearly complete command of the air. CBI's logistics apparatus was well established, and the leading bulldozer on the Ledo Road had pushed to within eighty miles of the road from Myitkyina south to Bhamo. From that point the engineers needed only to improve existing routes to the old Burma Road, fifty miles south of Bhamo. Myitkyina had grown into a massive supply 20 center with an expanded airfield and a pipeline. Sensing victory, the Allies planned to continue their advance in two phases, first to Bhamo and Katha, then to the Burma Road and Lashio. The offensive resumed on 15 October. While the main British force to the southwest completed its push to the Chindwin, Sultan advanced three divisions toward the Katha-Bhamo line. To the west 21 Aerial view of the first convoy to go from India to China over the re- opened Burma Road. (DA photograph) the British 36th Division, after overcoming stubborn Japanese resis- tance at the railway center of Pinwe, encountered no opposition until its occupation of Katha on 10 December. In the center the Chinese 22d Division likewise encountered little initial opposition, occupying its objective of Shwegu without incident on 7 November. South of Shwegu the 22d ran into advance elements of the 18th Division near Tonkwa on 8 December. Since the 22d Division was scheduled to leave the front for China, the 475th Infantry replaced the Chinese and held its ground against repeated assaults until the Japanese with- drew. Meanwhile, the Chinese 38th Division on the left flank had skillfully used flanking movements to drive the Japanese on its front into Bhamo. After a delaying action the Japanese evacuated Bhamo on 15 December and withdrew south toward Lashio. Reaching the Burma Road now lay within the grasp of the Allied forces. The next phase of the campaign would involve a larger role for the Mars Task Force.


Willey, were anxious not to risk the unit's de- struction by leaving it in an exposed position astride the road. The Mars Task Force may not have actually cut the Burma Road, but its threat to the Japanese line of retreat did hasten the enemy's withdrawal and the reopening of the road to China. While Y Force advanced southwest from the Chinese end of the Burma Road toward Wanting, the Chinese 30th and 38th Divisions moved southeast toward Namhkam, where they were to turn northeast and move toward a linkup with the road at Mong Yu. To oppose this drive, the Japanese had deployed the 56th Division at Wanting, troops of the 49th Division at Mong Yu, and a detachment at Namh- kam, but these units planned to fight only a delaying action before retreating south to join the defense of Mandalay. They withdrew as 23 soon as the Chinese applied pressure. As the Marsmen were estab- lishing their position to the south, the 30th and 38th Divisions cap- tured Namhkam and drove toward Mong Yu. On 20 January ad- vance patrols of the 38th linked up with those of Y Force outside Mong Yu. Another week proved necessary to clear the trace of any threat from Japanese patrols and artillery fire, but on 28 January the first convoy from Ledo passed through on its way to Kunming, China. In honor of the man who had singlemindedly pursued this goal for so long, the Allies named the route the Stilwell Road. Analysis Historians have found it fashionable to characterize the CBI as a forgotten theater, low in the Allied list of priorities. To be sure, the European, Mediterranean, and Pacific theaters all enjoyed greater access to scarce manpower and material than the CBI, which had to cope with an extended line of supply back to the United States.


A fine tacti- cian, he maneuvered his Chinese-American forces with considerable skill in the campaign to drive the Japanese from the Hukawng Val- ley, and he showed commendable boldness in the decision to strike for Myitkyina before the monsoon. In the end the gamble barely paid off, but it did succeed. Stilwell 's record indicates that he would have likely performed quite well as a division commander in Eu- rope, the role that Army Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall had in mind for him before his appointment to the CBI theater. Un- fortunately, most of Stilwell's responsibilities at the CBI empha- sized administration and diplomacy, areas for which he possessed much less aptitude than for field command. He had little patience for paperwork, and he lacked the tact to reconcile the differing viewpoints of the nations involved in the CBI. Admittedly, in his three years in the theater, he probably held more concurrent posi- tions than should ever have devolved on one man. In Stilwell's record, though, perhaps no aspect has stirred greater controversy than his treatment of Galahad. After the Myitkyina campaign numerous reports appeared in the American media about a breakdown of morale in the unit. Marauders complained that the- ater headquarters seemed to view them as expendable, bastard stepchildren, not worthy of medals or promotions. Many also protested that recruiters had told them that Galahad would serve for only ninety days of combat before returning to the rear for rest and rehabilitation. It seems clear that Stilwell and his staff could have done more to make the Marauders feel welcome in the theater, whether through decorations or some other means of recognition. Here Stilwell's personality played a key role. As a man who viewed himself as a regular doughboy, he looked with displeasure on indi- viduals who seemed to demand more than their fair share of atten- tion.


Toy Story Official Game Book

JUMP AROUND To get the toys into the box, Woody st be on top of the pump. Then p straight up in the air and when ands, he'll inflate the balloon and launch whatever’s on the balloon straight into the box. There are some dice, blocks, and other items stacked at the end of ; the shelves. You need to climb on these to reach the stars. After you've collected the stars, use Woody's pull-string to knock the dice and blocks to the floor. This allows-the trapped toys to jump &б the ground. ® Тһе only way to reach the stars above the crane is to jump from the bucket as it is being raised by the crane. Ón the SNES version, you need ta jump from Rocky's table, to the white table, to the lower shelf, or jump from the Tennis Ball to the shelf. Chairs block your path along the way, but you can always use blocks or balls as springboards to jump over them. | No one will hurt you. ® Collect the fifty Tin Stars. ® This is a timed stage, so move fast. ; As in every stage, there are fifty stars to be collected. You should collect the stars on the bed before the toys are.all put away. You don't need to collect all the stars to move on to the next level. Before you release the toys, jump up onto the letter blocks and dice to ` collect the stars. You can collect ars above the drums while jumping over them. The only way to reach the five stars above the crane is to ride on the bucket as it is being raised by the crane. One jump should collect the two stars on the left, while a second jump up and to the right should collect the other three.


Miscellaneous essays

A little of its sub- stance has previously appeared in different forms, first in a Florentine periodical some seven or eight years ago, and then in the Fortnightly Review for February 1888. But this old matter is the smallest part of it, and I have endeavoured to adjust the whole in a different fashion from that followed in either of these papers, so as to make it less of a review of particular works and par- ticular writers, more of a discussion and presentment of the moment in literature. Of the other pieces, which have all under- gone more or less revision, that which has been included with most misgiving is the viii Preface third essay, that on ** Modern English Prose," which was written at Mr. John Morley's re- quest for the Fortnightly Review nearly seven- teen years ago. I have been more often asked to reprint it than in any other case save that of the essay on Baudelaire, which also reappears. But " request of friends " is a notoriously inadequate plea, and cannot easily be allowed too little influence. I was, though not a very young man, a very young writer at the date of the appearance of the ** Prose" essay, and it seems to me rather amateurish in parts, besides being subject to the drawbacks inseparable from all reviews of literature which is no longer contemporary, and has not acquired the interest of history. But its inclusion seemed desirable, because, though it is written in regard of a different side of the matter, it to a certain extent supplements and completes the more elaborate paper on much the same subject with which the book opens, and for another reason which may be thought to possess still greater force. It will strike every one who reflects for a moment Preface ix that a great many other people, some of them scriptores haud paullo meliores quant ego, must have been thinking very much as I did at the time when this essay was written, and that their thought has impressed itself remarkably on later English literature.


Miscellaneous essays

The splendour, however, of the poetical production of the later Georgian period in poetry no doubt eclipsed its production in prose, and as a general rule that prose was rather even and excellent in general characteristics than eminent or peculiar in special quality. The same good sense which banished the artificial vocabulary of poetry achieved the banishing of it from prose. But except that it is always a little less stiff, and sometimes a little more negligent, the best prose written by men of middle or advanced age when George the Third was dying does not differ very greatly from the best prose written by men of middle or advanced age when he came to the throne. The range of subjects, the tone of thought, might be altered, the style was very much the same ; in fact, there can be very little doubt that while the poets deliberately rebelled against their predecessors, the prose writers, who were often the same persons in another function, deliberately fol- lowed, if they did not exactly imitate them. It was not until the end of this period of brilliant poetry that certain persons more or less deliberately set themselves to revolutionise English 2 2 Miscellaneous Essays prose, as the poets for a full generation had been revolutionising English verse. I say more or less deliberately, for the revived __^^"f?,_ fashion of " numerous " prose which one man of genius and one man of the greatest talent, Thomas de Quincey and John Wilson, proclaimed, which others seem to have adopted without much of set purpose, and which, owing especially to the great example of Mr. Ruskin, has enlisted so large a following, was in its origin partial and casual. The introducers of this style have hardly had due honour or due dishonour, for what they have done is not small, whatever may be thought of its character.


Miscellaneous essays

The wit of the salons promptly became a pamphleteer on one side or the other, and helped to point and wing the darts which both sides so freely flung. This group — Rulhi^re, Chamfort, Rivarol, Champcenetz, Laclos, Garat, and the rest — not merely figure as links between the chamber -wits of the eighteenth century and the journalists of the nineteenth, but in their persons, for the most part, served first in one class and then in the other. Indeed, in the condition to which they had brought the business of wit, it was only a variety of journalism, save that the sharp things said on current events were said to 46 Miscellaneous Essays a smaller public, and were reproduced by a less trustworthy medium than the press. Of this group the most remarkable chamfort beyond doubt were the two men whose rivarol. names stand at the head of this essay. They were both (to use a cant phrase which has been invented since their day) self-made men, they both illustrated in ways slightly different some of the most remarkable aspects of the French literary genius, and they have both left on record some of the sharpest and strongest -winged sayings that human ingenuity has ever framed. Neither — Chamfort even less than Rivarol — has left any single or definite literary work of great or decided value. One, from the accidents of his history as well as from his temperament and disposition, took the popular side in the great schism of the last decade of the eighteenth century, and had oc- casion amply to repent it. The other, less im- pulsive and more clear -sighted, took the side of precedent and authority, supported it with all his might, and derived profit from it, though he died long before its temporary triumph. Since their death the so-called works of both have been collected into what Mr.


Miscellaneous essays

At last the crowning moment of incredulity is reached when the prophet announces the fate of La Harpe. " La Harpe sera chr^tien." The com- pany are almost consoled when they think that their own misfortunes depend necessarily upon such an impossible contingency as this. But there is still an unpleasant impression from the gravity and the mystical reputation of the speaker. To dissipate it Madame de Grammont makes some light remark about the hardship which, by the conventions of society, prevents women from reaping the fruits of the Revolution. Cazotte replies to her promptly. There is no exemption for women in the Golden Age. She herself, her Miscellaneous Essays 53 friends, and even her betters will share the fate of Bailly and Roucher. "At least," she CHAMFORT crfes, " you will give me the consola- RivAROL. ^^on of a confessor." "No," is the answer. "The last victim who will be so attended will die before you, and he will be the King of France." This is too much even for such an assembly, and the host interferes. But the valiant duchess is irrepressible. She asks Cazotte whether he alone is exempted from all these evils, and receives for answer only a gloomy quotation from Josephus, relating to the fate of the madman who at the siege of Jerusalem ended his forebodings by crying, "Woe to myself!" Then Cazotte makes his bow and leaves the room. Before six years had passed every word of his prophecy was fulfilled. Vicq d'Azyr had suc- ceeded, and Chamfort had failed, in their attempts to copy the high Roman fashion. Roucher and Bailly and Madame de Grammont and the rest had looked through the dismal window, and Cazotte himself had been the hero of perhaps the most famous and most pitiful of the revolu- tionary legends.


Miscellaneous essays

Mais ses vers ont prouv6 qu'il a I'esprit d'un Ange ! It is needless to say that this publication provoked some rather warm displays of feeling from the brother men of letters, who found themselves classed with these fantastic personages. But before long the Revolution broke out, and Rivarol at once and without hesitation took the Royalist side. It does not appear that his motives were altogether sordid, and he was probably in- fluenced to a great extent by the same hatred which his countryman, Gautier, afterwards bore and expressed to la stupidity igcditaire. His articles in the Journal Politique National are vigorous enough, and have the curious tone of laboured conviction which is characteristic of Rivarol's serious work, and of which one is at a loss to gauge the sincerity, though it induces us to believe him insincere. He very soon had occasion to leave the country, and spent the last ten years of his life in Brussels, London, Hamburg, and Berlin, rejoicing a good deal in the society first Miscellaneotis Essays 57 of a certain Manette, then of a Russian princess ; writing a little under strong stress of CHAMFORT publishers, and often delighting young RivAROL. Frenchmen who were introduced to him by the brilliancy of his conversa- tion. It is to one of these neophytes that we owe not merely the best account of his ways, but also the preservation of some of the best of his good things. This was Ch6nedoll6, an amiable man of letters, a poet as poets went between the days of Andr6 Ch^nier and of Lamartine, and the friend of Joubert, of Chiteaubriand, and of a great many other persons more distinguished than himself. Rivarol died at Berlin in the spring of 1 801, being then just fifty years old. Before discussing the work from which these two men derived their principal and most per- manent reputation, it may be well to say a very few words on the absolute and relative literary merit of their longer and more regular composi- tions.


Miscellaneous essays

Sainte- Beuve acknowledges that he is presque un grand ecrivaiut and I venture to think that the presque expresses very close contiguity. But what is more remarkable about him even than his manner is his matter. His essay on the French language, his essay on Dante, are written with very insuf- ficient knowledge, and from a critical standpoint entirely opposed to our present points of view. Yet it is remarkable how Rivarol's divination sup- plies his lack of knowledge ; how just his thoughts are ; how strikingly they differ from the accepted notions of the La Harpes and the Suards. His translation, or rather paraphrase, of the Inferno, shows him chiefly as a master of language ; but the essays which precede it give him independent rank as a student and critic of thought. We may now pass from the work which did not give our authors their reputation to that which did. This latter is of an exceedingly miscellaneous and in parts of a rather prob- lematical kind. It consists partly of regular Miscellaneous Essays 59 pensies or maxims of the kind produced by Pascal, La Rochefoucauld, Vauvenar- CHAMFORT gues, and Joubert But it consists RivAROL. ^^i and in still larger measure, of anecdotes and of actual conversation and table-talk collected and handed down by authorities more or less trustworthy. To this may perhaps be added the Petit Almanack des Grands Hommes^ which Rivarol and Champcenetz launched at their contemporaries, and the axioms drawn from De V Homme, The total has served hundreds of writers since the time of the originals as a quarry, or perhaps, to use a more appropriate metaphor, as a spice-box. Its contents rarely possess the weight and fulness of the g^eat pens^e- writers ; the truths expressed are generally alloyed to no small extent, and there is much of mere personality and of the spite of the moment.


Miscellaneous essays

It is striking, and carefully abstains from committing the speaker to details ; a frequent characteristic of Chamfort's political maxims. Here is one, however, of far sharper point and more definite aim: "La noblesse, disent les nobles, est un interm^diaire entre le Roi et le peuple. . . . Oui, comme le chien de chasse est interm^diaire entre le chasseur et les li^vres." It is remarkable, again, to find a professed man of letters aiming such a shot as this at a favourite literary paradox on politics. " There are people who pardon all the ill that Miscellaneous Essays 6 1 priests have done, because had it not been for the priests we should never have had CHAMFORT Tartuffc." On the whole, however, his RivAROL. political sayings seem to me his worst. They are animated, indeed, by a really genuine if not fanatical enthusiasm for the popular cause, and by a clear, and, as I think, on the whole unselfish comprehension of the evils of the old regime. But they are decidedly one- sided, and there are traces about them of the personal prejudices of a nameless man who felt himself injured, in rank if not in pocket, by a convention of society. This element of person- ality may probably account to some extent for the speedy revulsion which came over him, and made him so soon "suspect" Chdteaubriand, who knew him, has remarked that he could not himself understand how Chamfort could ever have seriously espoused any political cause what- ever. There must have been something in his manner which caused this wonder, for his language is expressive enough of conviction. A remarkable sourness reappears in his speeches on other subjects. He is always complaining — very unjustly as it seems in his own case — of the scanty encourage- ment given to men of letters.


Miscellaneous essays

He said of the Allies, " lis ont toujours ^t^ en arri^re d'une ann^e, d'une armte, et d'une id^e," and of the nobles, "lis prennent leurs souvenirs pour des droits." The Lettre d la Noblesse, written when Brunswick's victorious advent was confidently expected, is a really admirable appeal for moderation and justice in the moment of presumed victory. His religious maxims have the air of being 72 Miscellaneotcs Essays made to order, but fortunately there are few of them. In ethics he is more copious, and on both these subjects his chief chamfort utterances are to be found in a series rivarol. of letters to Necker, who was one of his chosen objects of attack. There is, however, in some of his moral sentences a fair measure of the spirit of La Rochefoucauld. ** L'indulgence pour ceux qu'on connatt est bien plus rare que la piti^ pour ceux qu'on ne connatt pas " is not un- worthy of the great anatomist of the seventeenth century. The following, too, from the Treatise " de THomme," a strange mixture of dulness and vivacity, is a fine image : " Les pavots de la vieil- lesse s'interposent entre la vie et la mort pour nous faire oublier Tune et nous assoupir sur Tautre." In another saying, verbally good as it is, Rivarol is surely unjust towards his century. "Que pouvait faire," he asks, " le bon sens dans un si^le malade de m^taphysique ou Ton ne permettait plus le bonheur de se presenter sans preuves?" This is probably the only time that the eighteenth century has ever been charged with too great nicety in its admittance of things enjoyable. In dealing with literary subjects we might expect greater copiousness from st lover of letters and of language such as Rivarol, who, like Gautier and some other writers, had a genuine affection for words in themselves.


Miscellaneous essays

But perhaps the best measure of his faculty is to be found in some remarks on Shakespeare. It does not appear that these remarks were founded 74 Miscellaneous Essays on any real knowledge of the poet, and Rivarol was too much a man of his time to divine fully the phenomenon which he chamfort was not able, or did not care to examine, rivarol. But his view is exactly that which a man of great faculty would take of Shakespeare, from secondhand knowledge of what had been said of him by enthusiasts on the one side, and detract- ors on the other. There are few anecdotes recorded of RivaroVs telling. " Dieu de la conversation," and " Saint Georges de T^pigramme," as his admirers called him, his speech does not seem to have been that of the raconteur. His faculty, in short, was almost entirely critical, and he knew it so well that he abstained from any attempt at constructive work, except on the smallest scale. He was a bom journalist and reviewer, and perhaps under press- ure he might have made a historian. But it is difficult to imagine him either poet, dramatist, or writer of fiction. Chamfort, on the other hand, had novel-writing come into fashion in his days, might very well have anticipated Charles de Bernard, though his graver would have drawn deeper lines. To weigh either of these men in the balance, and assign them their exact place among writers, is not very easy. As we have seen, nothing that they did of any magnitude, with a partial excepn tion in the case of some work of Rivarol's, deserves high estimate. We are therefore forced to judge Miscellaneous Essays 75 them by their maxims, independent or imbedded in larger works, by their reported CHAMFORT conversation, and by doubtful and AND RivAROL, treacherous collections of apophthegms and anecdotes.


Miscellaneous essays

The paucity of words which it necessarily affects may be suggestive of much thought : on the other hand it may serve to con- ceal the want of any thought at all. The writer o{ pensdes always and legitimately claims that his readers shall read between the lines, and some- times it seems as if he relied a little too much on this license. There is also a vast amount of mere trick in this style of composition. Let any man of fair ability and some knack of writing spend a few days over La Rocliefoucauld and Joubert, and he will find himself almost unconsciously framing sentences on their model, the goodness or badness of which he can hardly, for the time at least, estimate. In these two writers there is scarcely any alloy, but the same can hardly be said of any other composers of maxims, and it certainly cannot be said of the two who are before us. To write pens^es with supreme felicity there is required, either such long experience and keen observation of men as La Rochefoucauld and Chesterfield possessed, or else such familiarity with books, and such a habit of meditation, as was the equipment of Pascal and Joubert Neither Chamfort nor Rivarol possessed either of these advantages in 76 Miscellaneous Essays the highest degree. They knew men, but only from the outside, and from certain limited, superficial, and accidental points chamfort of view. They knew books too, but rivarol. their knowledge was circumscribed by the fashions of a time which, whatever its other merits may have been, was a time as little favour- able to literary criticism and valuation as any that the world has seen. Hence their axioms are rather personal than general, rather amusing than instructive, rather showing the acuteness and ingenuity of the authors than able to throw light on the subjects dealt with.


Torture in Israeli Jails

He was kept under a cold shower; jammed into a barrel of freezing water: and suspended from his wrists once more while the interrogator Orli squeezed his genitals. ‘“The mind cannot imagine how that hurts. It was so bad, it made me forget all the other pain.” The last assault Abdel-Karim remembers is being shut in a small cell into which some kind of gas was squirted through the judas-hole in the door. “‘| couldn’t stop coughing, My eyes and nose were running. The whole world started turning round me.” He remembers ‘a piece of glass like a finger’ which was finally slid into each nostril to ease his breathing. From that point, Abdel-Karim’s alleged recollec- tions are confused and fragmentary. We have established that at the end of November, for example, he spent a week in the main Israeli prison hospital at Ramleh. He says he does not remember this. Then on December 12, his wife Nijmi says, she and their 12-year-old son visited him back in Hebron and he did not recognise the boy. Hesays he does not remember this episode either. About this time, the Israelis took him to the Jordanian border; but the Jordanians refused to accept him because no arrangements had been made. Abdel-Karim says he just recalls someting like that. Of his eventuai journey to Salt in February through the mediation of the International Red Cross, he remembers very little. IT IS AN APPALLING story, but how much of it is true? In the nature of torture, only two parties are present: torturer and victim. As Amnesty Internatio- nal has said: ‘“The confrontation between the individual and the limitless power of the state. .. 15 takes place in the darkest recess of political power.”’ Failing a confession by the torturers, we have to look for other things: corroboration of verifiable details; or the consistency of one account with others, in circumstances where collusion can be ruled out.


Torture in Israeli Jails

Israel is a Jewish state, determined to remain so. Yet it rules 1.7 million Arabs—for a decade 1.2 million of these have been under military occupation. The reasons why Israel has since 1948 steadily increased its dominion over Arabs and their land go back into the infinite regress of cause - and - effect, charge and counter-charge that makes up modern Middle Eastern History. That is outside the scope of our inquiry. The fact is that most Israelis see no choice but tocontinue military occupation; while some Israelis actively want to do so, on the grounds of historic Jewish rights to the land. Because Israel is so dependent on what Weitzmann saw as the judgment of the world it must try to ensure the judgment is favourable. The conflict between this international need and the domestic reality of military rule and Arab resistance expressed 23 sometimes through terrorism seems to us the most concrete explanation of why torture has become, on the evidence, an accepted Israeli practice. There are, of course, many whowill passionately reject our evidence as literally unthinkable. Many more will find in the idea of a persecuted race becoming in turn the persecutors a paradox so distasteful as to demand better evidence than perhaps would be needed against other countries. Even more will point out that Israel claims—and undoubtedly feels itself—to be at war for its life; and that the Arab’s record on civil liberties is, to say the least, poor. The point, of course, is that Israel itself does not, in theory, accept the unspoken implications of their argument. Israel does not admit that torture is justified by its situation. It denies that torture is ever used. Nor does Israel justify failures in civil rights by comparisons with Arab deficiencies. On the contrary, it is fundamental to Israel's ethos and to its claims for international support that it is part of the West—thus to be judged by Western standards.


Torture in Israeli Jails

Thus Israel can demonstrate to itself and to the world that it has no political prisoners—only convicted terrorists. As Israel’s ambassador to the United Nations, Jacob Doron, asked in a speech last November: ‘What is wrong with the holding of trials and the conviction of those found guilty after due process of law? ’’ The answer is: when those public convictions are gained by means of secret torture. THE MILITARY COURTS are the fulcrum of Israel’s claim to rule the occupied teritories according to the rule of law. We have talked with six lawyers—two Israelis and four Palestinians—who regularly appear in them to defend those accused of security offences. For the record, their names are: Felicia Langer, Lea Tsemel, Wasfi Masri, Anton Jaser Elias Khoury and Fayez abu Rahmeh. Their unanimous opinion is that the military courts collude in and knowingly conceal the use of torture by 27 Israel’s intelligence and security services. The mechanism is, in its way, elegant, almost syllogistic. Most convictions in those courts are based on confessions by the accused; most of those confes- sions, the lawyers are convinced, are extracted by ill-treatment or torture; almost without exception the courts reject that contention. A security suspect in the occupied territories is usually arrested by Israeli soldiers or border police, accompanied mostly by one or more men in civilian clothes. Most Palestinians we spoke to referred to the plain-clothes men as Shin Beth, Israel’s internal security service. (In fact, we have learned they are just as likely to belong to Israel’s military intelligence. ) The suspect can be held for up to 18 days before being taken before a military judge. He can order further detention of up to six months. In this time the suspect is interrogated. When eventually he is brought to trial—up to a year later—the prosecution is almost invariably equipped with a statement, signed by the suspect, confessing to at least some of the charges.


Torture in Israeli Jails

On December 18 the complaint against Hillel was dismissed. Dr a ep A A) FOUR STORIES IN SUPPORT Te IE a TT EEA WE KNOW , as we have said, of eight other Palestinian Arabs who appear to have been in the special interrogation centre at about the same time as Harb. Two are still in custody, but of the six who were freed we traced and interviewed four: Mohammed abu-Ghabiyr, Jamal Freitah, Kaldoun Abdul Haq, Husni Haddad. Only Haddad was in exile in Jordan. (He died in Amman in May this year; we retain the tape of our interview with him.) The other three still live, like Harb, on the West Bank. None was ever charged. In view of what they say, it is important to consider whether these four and Harb could have colluded their accounts. Harb and three of them were certainly together for some days in Yagur, immediately after interro- gation. But then they were split up, and only two served in the same prison (Haq and Freitah in Nablus) Haddad had not been in Yagor with the others, but 45 he saw Harb for a few days in Ramallah when he was taken there for a hearing to extend his detention. This gives the theoretical possibility that the five men could have conspired to fabricate a story. But only during those days at Yagur could a story have been cooked up—to be passed to Haddad later. And there are two further points. After his deportation to Jordan, Haddad had no chance to meet the others. Secondly, we first interviewed two of those still on the West Bank—Hag and abu-Ghabiyr—without any warning and before the final pair, Harb and Freitah, had been freed. We questioned them only days after their release. In our view these facts and the weight of detail the men volunteered 30 months after their experiences argues reality rather than some long-remembered fabrication.


Torture in Israeli Jails

The most likely answer is that it lies behind the high wire fence that all tourists see as they drive the last stretch from Jerusalem to Tel Aviv. The wire, the Military checkpoints at a couple of entrances, and a few low scruffy buildings in the distance are virtually all thatis visible of the ten square miles of Israel’s biggest army ordnance and supply depot, Sarafand. (The Jewish National Fund also uses part of Sarafand to house the equipment for roadbuilding in its new settlements in Israel and the occupied territories. ) Sarafand occupies a prominent place in Palestinian demonology. Scores of statements talk of it; and most of those who have been through the interrogation centre refer to it automaticaly as Sarafand. But that is an assumption on their part, as qtiestioning soon shows. There are, nevertheless, historical reasons why they could be right. Sarafand was built as the main 49 British ordnance depot in Palestine before World War Two. When Britain then needed two camps to house Arab detainees during the riots of the late 1930s, one was built inside Sarafand. (The other was in Sinai.) So many of the old British mandate buildings were taken over, function and all, by the Israelis that Sarafand would have been a logical choice to house a new generation of Arab detainees. For it is clear from detainees’ accounts that the mysterious new interrogation centre run by the military came into operation after the 1967 war. And it was another three years or so before its buildings—ramshackle at first, as if disused for a time —had been renovated. (Some detainees, taken there at intervals, observed the process.) The assertion that they were in Sarafand comes most confidently from those early alumni. Yet each in turn seems to have learned this only from inmates already there.


Mini Course Catalog (1975-1976)

Baltimore, Philadelphia and New York. Students have numerous opportunities to visit the metropolitan areas and places of historical significance. Summer Session The summer session at Shepherd College is an integral part of the college year. All general college requirements relating to high academic General Information/7 standards, sound scholarship and good citizenship are maintained by the faculty. The summer session is organized into two terms of five weeks each. Off Campus Program Off campus classes may be organized where fifteen or more students desire a class to be taught by a regular college instructor. Classes meet for a minimum of sixteen clock hours for each semester hour of college extension credit. A graduate program in cooperation with West Virginia University is now in effect. Community College Component In order to provide career and technical Community Colleqe programs throughout 'Eastern West Virginia a community College Component was established in 1974 within the Administrative framework of Shepherd College. The Community College philosophy subscribes to the concept of learning for all ages whenever and wherever needed in the service area. Continuing education, community services and certificate and associate degree programs are provided under the auspices of the Community College Component. Ideally Located Shepherd College is situated within ninety minutes drive of downtown Washington or Baltimore. The curriculum of the college is vastly enriched by making field trips to that metropolitan area a part of the learning activities. Observation trips to the United States Supreme Court, the United States Congress, and other Federal agencies are easily accomplished. The cultural program of the college is likewise enriched by the scheduling of artists and performing groups from the city. In their recreational life, students find the location of the college most advantageous. SHEPHERD COLLEGE CAMPUS The campus of Shepherd College comprises an area of approximately one hundred fifty-six acres of rolling limestone land extending from Main Street in Shepherdstown to the banks of the Potomac River.


Mini Course Catalog (1975-1976)

Each case shall be determined on an individual basis by the Admissions and Credits Committee. Students will be awarded credit for the successful completion of any or all of the CLEP Subject Examinations presently offered or developed in the future. They must achieve a score equal to or above the recommended score of the model policy of the College Board's Council on College-Level Examinations current at the time the examination was taken. Credit shall be awarded for the number of semesters for which the examination was designed. A grade shall not be assigned and the credit will not be included in the computation of the student's grade point average. Admissions/ 11 If credit in general education does not meet specific program requirements of Shepherd College, the credit shall be used as elective credit. The permanent academic record of the student shall indicate which credit was earned by CLEP examination. Students must be enrolled at Shepherd College in order to receive credit from the institution. Students who have taken CLEP examinations prior to enrollment must submit an official CLEP transcript. The Chancellor of the West Virginia Board of Regents shall appoint a committee to review these regulations periodically. Students currently enrolled at Shepherd College may take the CLEP examinations on campus. Persons desiring to enroll at Shepherd College who wish CLEP credit as part of their admission must take the examinations at another testing center. At present the closest center to Shepherd College is located at Frederick Community College, Frederick Maryland. WAIVING FRESHMAN ENGLISH English 101 may be waived by special examination or on the basis of freshman placement tests, but no credit is allowed. Students are expected to take an advanced English course as a substitute. Students who score 26 or better on the English portion of the ACT may request the Chairman of the Division of Languages and Literature to waive the requirement of English 101.


Mini Course Catalog (1975-1976)

In this event, the Division Chairman will refer the student to the Freshman Evaluation Committee, which will give him a Division English 101 test and one or more themes. On the basis of this test and theme (s) the committee may waive the requirement of English 101. No credit will be allowed for the waived requirement; the student must still complete 128 hours for graduation, and he must select some other class in English in lieu of the English 101. COLLEGE TRANSFER STUDENTS Any applicant for admission to Shepherd College who has attended another institution of collegiate rank will be classified as a transfer student whether he has earned credit or not. The College does not under any condition disregard college or university credits earned elsewhere. Credit earned at other accredited colleges and universities will be allowed toward a degree at Shepherd College if applicable. In addition to other required materials college transfers are expected to have a 2.00 overall average on all courses attempted and eligibility to return to their former college. A student who is on either academic or social probation is not considered eligible for admission to Shepherd College. 12/Shepherd College All grades and credits transferred to Shepherd College are posted on the permanent record exactly as received from all other colleges. Grades earned at another institution cannot be used to make up a deficit of quality points at Shepherd College. Transcripts must be mailed directly to Shepherd College- from all colleges which the prospective student has previously attended. Transcripts received by Shepherd College become the property of the College and carmot be returned to the student. Graduates of regionally accredited junior or community colleges are assigned a maximum of seventy-two (72) semester hours of credit. Admissions/ 13 HIGH SCHOOL HONORS PROGRAM High School students who have completed the junior year of study may be admitted to Shepherd College to enroll in not more than 17 semester hours per semester if the following conditions are fulfilled: 1.


Mini Course Catalog (1975-1976)

Recommendation of the high school principal. 2. Completion of all high school subjects prerequisite to enrolling the desired college course. 3. Attainment of at least a "B" average in high school subjects required for college admission. 4. Completion of at least thirteen (13) units of high school credit. Courses must be approved in advance of registration by Shepherd College. Official college credit will be recorded only after institutional receipt of high school graduation certification. All high school credit should be completed within a year after the initial college registration. PROJECT AHEAD (Army Help for Education & Development) Shepherd College has approved participation in the Army's new educational program, Project AHEAD. Under this program the College will admit qualified men and women as degree candidates at the time of their enlistment in the Army and provide counseling assistance to help them plan academic programs that will take advantage of approved course offerings wherever they may be stationed. Individuals designated as Project AHEAD students will be accepted for the Bachelor degree, Associate degree or One-Year Certificate programs. After qualifying for Army service and fulfilling the "home school's" (Shepherd College) cooperative education requirement, the Project AHEAD student-soldier is counseled on how to apply credits earned for college courses while on or off Army duty. Army counselors in on-post educational centers provide local guidance to make sure that the soldier-student takes the right courses to complement his or her education program at Shepherd College. When the Project AHEAD student is discharged from the Army and returns to the Shepherd campus, the course work he has taken while in the service is accumulated and credited toward his degree program. College Level Examination Program (CLEP) tests, College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB) Advanced Placement tests, and USAFI course work can also be used for college credit. Individuals interested in learning more about the Project AHEAD program at Shepherd College should contact the Director of Student Development at Shepherd College. 14/Shepherd College REGENTS B.A.


Mini Course Catalog (1975-1976)

After his application and official transcript have been received, he will be notified of his acceptance or denial. Every student should familiarize himself with the College catalog and all requirements for certification and degrees, and will be held primarily responsible for meeting these requirements. A student who has been officially admitted to the College will receive instructions and information regarding the Orientation Program and Registration from the Office of the Registrar. An advisor will be appointed for all first-time enrollees. A student should feel free at all times to contact his advisor to plan and discuss his schedule and academic program. Advisors are chosen in the field in which the student is majoring. Ordinarily, a student has the same advisor until he graduates unless he changes his field of study. COLLEGE CREDIT FOR MILITARY SERVICE Institutions of higher learning in West Virginia will grant credit of four (4) semester hours to an individual who presents a copy of his DD- 214 Form after completing a minimum of one year of active military service. This credit shall be assigned to physical education, hygiene, miltary training or appropriate electives. The four semester hours allowed for basic or recruit training may be counted as lower division physical education unassigned, or may be counted toward the following requirements: two hours, Health Education; two hours, First Aid; four hours, Recreational Activities; four hours, Team Sports. Correspondence work completed at accredited institutions of higher learning cooperating with the Armed Forces Institute will be accepted by institutions of higher learning in West Virginia for the amount of credit allowed by the institution with which the credit was earned, but not to exceed 28 semester hours. SUMMER ORIENTATION, TESTING AND EARLY REGISTRATION New freshmen and transfer students who will be entering Shepherd College for the first time have the opportunity to attend an orientation, testing and early registration session held on one of several dates in June and July.


Mini Course Catalog (1975-1976)

During this one day visit to campus, new students have an opportunity to meet with faculty advisors, counselors, members of the Student Affairs staff and other administrators. Students are given an introduction to the academic program. They plan a tentative schedule for the fall semester. Students are also given an opportunity to participate in discussion groups covering various phases of the academic program, campus services, and extra-curricular activities. Since these programs are designed to help students make a satisfactory adjustment to college, all new students accepted for admission in the fall semester are expected to attend. Dates are announced to newly admitted students early in the spring. STUDENT DEVELOPMENT A student development staff has been employed to help students make the most of their opportunities to develop personally, socially, and intellectually. One of the primary concerns of the staff is that of helping students adjust to the total college environment. Within this department are found counseling, testing, and placement services along with federally funded Student Special Services. Three professionally qualified counselors are part of this staff. They are eager to work with students who have concerns in the personal- social, vocational, or academic areas. Confidential treatment of things the student feels are "personal" is the byword in the counseling center. In addition to counseling, this office arranges employment or placement interviews for graduating seniors or alumni in the non-teaching fields. Representatives of business, industry, and government are invited to the campus for the purpose of recruiting Shepherd graduates. This office also serves as the clearing-house for any off-campus part-time jobs which may be available to students. Student Special Services is designed to assist college students through reading/study skills development, counseling, and tutoring. Through a qualified reading/study skills specialist, students can improve their reading skills and develop effective study habits.


Mini Course Catalog (1975-1976)

Activities, programs and counseling services are planned and carried out for the benefit of all residents, providing them with opportunities to learn to live happily and comfortably within groups. A major value of the experience is learning to live in such a manner as not to infringe upon the rights of others and to this end the residence halls have specific standards developed by the staff and residents to assist in group living and citizenship education. By accepting a room reservation in a residence hall, students 22/Shepherd College consent to an agreement with Shepherd College that they will adhere to the rules and regulations found in the Residence Hall Manuals and the Student Handbook and will not conduct themselves in any way that will infringe upon the rights and privileges of other individuals or the group. Rooms are furnished with single beds, dressers, chests, desks and chairs. Students supply linens (a rental plan is available), pillows, blankets, spreads, rugs and accessories to suit their tastes. The college is not responsible for the personal property of students in a residence hall. Normally, all personal property is removed when a student withdraws, but in unusual circumstances the college will keep personal property for two weeks. Any property left two weeks after a student has withdrawn will be discarded. FOOD SERVICES To provide for the eating pleasure and nutritional needs of students, the College operates a well equipped Dining Hall. This facility is catered by an outstanding national food catering service. The Dining Hall is conveniently located on Residence Hall Circle between Kenamond and Turner Halls. Off campus students may take advantage of the College food service by either purchasing a meal ticket from the College Business Office or by paying for meals at the time they are purchased. All Residence Hall students are required to purchase meal tickets.